Pb 82

Lead (Pb)

post-transition-metal

Period: 6 Group: 14 Block: p

Solid

Standard Atomic Weight

Electron configuration

[Xe] 6s² 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6p²

Melting point

327.46 °C (600.61 K)

Boiling point

1748.85 °C (2022 K)

Density

1.134200e+4 kg/m³

Oxidation states

−4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4

Electronegativity (Pauling)

2.33

Ionization energy (1st)

Discovery year

2021

Atomic radius

180 pm

Details

Name origin Anglo-Saxon: lead; symbol from Latin: plumbum.

Discoverers Known to the ancients.

Lead is a dense, soft post-transition metal with atomic number 82. It is chemically characterized by the +2 oxidation state, with +4 less stable except in selected compounds, a pattern influenced by the inert-pair effect. Lead has been used since antiquity because it is easily smelted and worked, but its toxicity now strongly limits dispersive uses. It remains important where high density, corrosion resistance, low melting point, and radiation attenuation are valuable.

Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright luster. It is very soft, highly malleable, ductile, and a poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service. It is used in containers for corrosive liquids (such as sulfuric acid) and may be toughened by the addition of a small percentage of antimony or other metals.

The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon lead, which is of unknown origin. The element was known from prehistoric times. The chemical symbol Pb is derived from the Latin plumbum.

<p class="caption">For more information about the natural variations of the atomic weight of lead please read IUPAC Technical Report Variation of lead isotopic composition and atomic weight in terrestrial materials (IUPAC Technical Report) <img src="images/pdf.gif" style="width:auto; margin:0; vertical-align:bottom;"> by Z.-K. Zhu et al Pure Appl. Chem. <strong>93</strong>, 155-166 (2021).

Lead has been known since ancient times. It is sometimes found free in nature, but is usually obtained from the ores galena (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3) and minum (Pb3O4). Although lead makes up only about 0.0013% of the earth's crust, it is not considered to be a rare element since it is easily mined and refined. Most lead is obtained by roasting galena in hot air, although nearly one third of the lead used in the United States is obtained through recycling efforts.

Long known, mentioned in Exodus. The alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated with the planet Saturn. Native lead occurs in nature, but is rare.

Read about Lead on Wikipedia

Images

Properties

Physical

Atomic radius (empirical) 180 pm

Covalent radius 146 pm

Van der Waals radius 202 pm

Metallic radius 150 pm

Density

Molar volume 0.0183 L/mol

Phase at STP solid

Melting point 327.46 °C

Boiling point 1748.85 °C

Thermal conductivity 35.3 W/(m·K)

Specific heat capacity 0.13 J/(g·K)

Molar heat capacity 26.84 J/(mol·K)

Crystal structure fcc

Chemical

Electronegativity (Pauling) 2.33

Electronegativity (Allen) 1.854

Electron affinity

Ionization energy (1st)

Ionization energy (2nd)

Ionization energy (3rd)

Ionization energy (4th)

Ionization energy (5th)

Oxidation states −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4

Valence electrons 4

Electron configuration

Electron configuration (semantic)

Thermodynamic

Heat of fusion 0.04943774 eV

Heat of vaporization 1.860393 eV

Heat of sublimation 2.023112 eV

Heat of atomization 2.023112 eV

Atomization enthalpy

Nuclear

Stable isotopes 3

Discovery year 2021

Abundance

Abundance (Earth's crust) 14 mg/kg

Abundance (ocean)

Reactivity

N/A

Crystal Structure

Lattice constant a 495 pm

Electronic Structure

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4

Identifiers

CAS number 7439-92-1

Term symbol

InChI InChI=1S/Pb

InChI Key WABPQHHGFIMREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Electron Configuration Measured

Ion charge

Protons 82

Electrons 82

Charge Neutral

Configuration Pb: 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²

[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²

1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²

Orbital diagram

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

6/6

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

6/6

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

10/10

↑↓

6/6

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

10/10

↑↓

6/6

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

14/14

↑↓

10/10

↑

2/6 2↑

Total electrons: 82 Unpaired: 2

Atomic model

Protons 82

Neutrons 102

Electrons 82

Mass number 184

Stability Radioactive

Isotopes change neutron count, mass, and stability — not the electron configuration of a neutral atom.

Schematic atomic model, not to scale.

Atomic Fingerprint

Emission / Absorption Spectrum

Emission Visible: 380–750 nm

Isotope Distribution

No stable isotopes.

Mass number	Atomic mass (u)	Natural abundance	Half-life
183 Radioactive	182.991872 ± 0.00003	N/A	535 ms
184 Radioactive	183.988136 ± 0.000014	N/A	490 ms
178 Radioactive	178.003831 ± 0.000026	N/A	250 us
215 Radioactive	215.00474 ± 0.00011	N/A	142 seconds
204 Radioactive	203.973044 ± 0.0000013	1.4000%	140 Py

Measured

Phase / State

Solid 25 °C (298.15 K)

Reason: 302.5 °C below melting point (327.46 °C)

Melting point 327.46 °C

Boiling point 1748.85 °C

Below melting by 302.5 °C

0 K Current temperature: 25 °C 6000 K

Phase timeline

Schematic, not to scale

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Melting

Boiling

25°C

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Current

Phase transition points

Melting point Literature

327.46 °C

Boiling point Literature

1748.85 °C

Current phase Calculated
Solid

Transition energies

Heat of fusion Literature

0.04943774 eV

Energy required to melt 1 mol at melting point

Heat of vaporization Literature

1.860393 eV

Energy required to vaporize 1 mol at boiling point

Heat of sublimation Literature

2.023112 eV

Energy required to sublime 1 mol at sublimation point

Density

Reference density Literature

1.134200e+4 kg/m³

At standard conditions

Current density Calculated

1.134200e+4 kg/m³

At standard conditions

Atomic Spectra

Showing 10 of 82 Atomic Spectra. Sorted by ion charge (ascending).

Lines Holdings ?

Ion	Charge	Total lines	Transition probabilities	Level designations
Pb I	0	135	28	135
Pb II	+1	97	3	12
Pb III	+2	41	0	0
Pb IV	+3	92	0	0
Pb V	+4	90	0	0

NIST Lines Holdings →

Levels Holdings ?

Ion	Charge	Levels
Pb I	0	136
Pb II	+1	95
Pb III	+2	124
Pb IV	+3	108
Pb V	+4	45
Pb VI	+5	2
Pb VII	+6	2
Pb VIII	+7	2
Pb IX	+8	2
Pb X	+9	2

NIST Levels Holdings →

82 Pb 207.2

Lead — Atomic Orbital Visualizer

[Xe]6s24f145d106p2

Energy levels 2 8 18 32 18 4

Oxidation states -4, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4

HOMO 6p n=6 · l=1 · m=-1

Lead — Atomic Orbital Visualizer Preview

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82 Pb 207.2

Lead — Crystal Structure Visualizer

Face-Centered Cubic · Pearson cF4

Experimental

Pearson cF4

Coord. № 12

Packing 74.000%

Lead — Crystal Structure Visualizer Preview

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Ionic Radii

Showing 10 of 12 Ionic Radii.

Charge	Coordination	Spin	Radius
+2	4	N/A	98 pm
+2	6	N/A	119 pm
+2	7	N/A	123 pm
+2	8	N/A	129 pm
+2	9	N/A	135 pm
+2	10	N/A	140 pm
+2	11	N/A	145 pm
+2	12	N/A	149 pm
+4	4	N/A	65 pm
+4	5	N/A	73 pm

Compounds

207.000 u

Pb+2

207.000 u

209.984 u

214.000 u

211.992 u

205.974 u

206.976 u

207.977 u

203.973 u

202.973 u

204.974 u

208.981 u

210.989 u

200.973 u

199.972 u

197.972 u

198.973 u

201.972 u

194.975 u

218.017 u

Pb+2

211.992 u

193.974 u

195.973 u

196.973 u

212.997 u

Isotopes (5)

Mass number	Atomic mass (u)	Natural abundance	Half-life	Decay mode
183 Radioactive	182.991872 ± 0.00003	N/A	535 ms	α ≈100%β+ ?
184 Radioactive	183.988136 ± 0.000014	N/A	490 ms	α =80±1.1%β+ ?
178 Radioactive	178.003831 ± 0.000026	N/A	250 us	α ≈100%β+ ?
215 Radioactive	215.00474 ± 0.00011	N/A	142 seconds	β- =100%
204 Radioactive	203.973044 ± 0.0000013	1.4000% ± 0.1000%	140 Py	IS =1.4±0.6%α ?

183 Radioactive

Atomic mass (u) 182.991872 ± 0.00003

Natural abundance N/A

Half-life 535 ms

Decay mode

α ≈100%β+ ?

184 Radioactive

Atomic mass (u) 183.988136 ± 0.000014

Natural abundance N/A

Half-life 490 ms

Decay mode

α =80±1.1%β+ ?

178 Radioactive

Atomic mass (u) 178.003831 ± 0.000026

Natural abundance N/A

Half-life 250 us

Decay mode

α ≈100%β+ ?

215 Radioactive

Atomic mass (u) 215.00474 ± 0.00011

Natural abundance N/A

Half-life 142 seconds

Decay mode

β- =100%

204 Radioactive

Atomic mass (u) 203.973044 ± 0.0000013

Natural abundance 1.4000% ± 0.1000%

Half-life 140 Py

Decay mode

IS =1.4±0.6%α ?

Spectral Lines

Wavelength (nm)	Intensity	Ion stage	Type	Transition	Accuracy	Source
401.96322 nm	15000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST
405.780659 nm	95000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)*	Measured	NIST
406.213593 nm	14000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).6d 2[3/2]	Measured	NIST
415.78144 nm	10	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.9s (1/2,1/2)*	Measured	NIST
416.80327 nm	10000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST
434.041263 nm	200	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).7d 2[3/2]	Measured	NIST
500.54165 nm	1000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (3/2,1/2)*	Measured	NIST
500.65724 nm	100	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
507.6322 nm	10	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2)	Measured	NIST
508.94835 nm	50	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
509.00083 nm	20	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
510.72427 nm	10	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2)	Measured	NIST
520.14372 nm	2000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.8s (1/2,1/2)*	Measured	NIST
569.23465 nm	40	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).5f 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST
589.56245 nm	200	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
600.18624 nm	2000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
601.16667 nm	500	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
605.93556 nm	500	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2)	Measured	NIST
611.05203 nm	50	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2)	Measured	NIST
623.52656 nm	100	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2)	Measured	NIST
689.2117 nm	10	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).10d 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST
712.893 nm	5	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.11s (1/2,1/2)*	Measured	NIST
722.89658 nm	20000	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)*	Measured	NIST
730.46753 nm	5	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).9d 2[3/2]	Measured	NIST
733.0146 nm	8	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2)	Measured	NIST
734.6676 nm	10	Pb I	emission	6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P<1/2>).9d 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST

Extended Properties

Covalent Radii (Extended)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö, double)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö, triple)

Van der Waals Radii

Bondi

Batsanov

Alvarez

UFF

MM3

Atomic & Metallic Radii

Atomic radius (Rahm)

Metallic radius (C12)

Numbering Scales

Mendeleev

Pettifor

Glawe

Electronegativity Scales

Ghosh

Miedema

Gunnarsson–Lundqvist

Robles–Bartolotti

Polarizability & Dispersion

Dipole polarizability

Dipole polarizability (unc.)

C₆ (Gould–Bučko)

Miedema Parameters

Miedema molar volume

Miedema electron density

Supply Risk & Economics

Production concentration

Relative supply risk

Reserve distribution

Political stability (top producer)

Political stability (top reserve)

Phase Transitions & Allotropes

Melting point	600.61 K
Boiling point	2022.15 K

Oxidation State Categories

+4 main

+2 main

0 extended

−2 extended

+1 extended

−1 extended

−4 extended

+3 extended

Advanced Reference Data

Screening Constants (15)

n	Orbital	σ
1	s	1.5805
2	p	4.5234
2	s	21.57
3	d	13.4533
3	p	22.8505
3	s	23.8477
4	d	37.6804
4	f	38.0312
4	p	35.9664
4	s	35.1072

Crystal Radii Detail (12)

Charge	CN	r_crystal (pm)	Origin
2	IVPY	112	calculated,
2	VI	133
2	VII	137	calculated,
2	VIII	143	calculated,
2	IX	149	calculated,
2	X	154	calculated,
2	XI	159	calculated,
2	XII	163
4	IV	79	estimated,
4	V	87	estimated,

Isotope Decay Modes (59)

Isotope	Mode	Intensity
178	A	100%
178	B+	—
179	A	100%
180	A	100%
181	A	100%
181	B+	—
182	A	100%
182	B+	—
183	A	100%
183	B+	—

X‑ray Scattering Factors (516)

Energy (eV)	f₁	f₂
10	—	4.6699
10.1617	—	4.72735
10.3261	—	4.78551
10.4931	—	4.84439
10.6628	—	4.83957
10.8353	—	4.83203
11.0106	—	4.82451
11.1886	—	4.817
11.3696	—	4.7889
11.5535	—	4.7596

Additional Data

Estimated Crustal Abundance

The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.

1.4×101 milligrams per kilogram

References (1)

[5] Lead https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele082.html

Estimated Oceanic Abundance

The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.

3×10-5 milligrams per liter

References (1)

[5] Lead https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele082.html

Sources

Sources of this element.

Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.

References (1)

[6] Lead https://periodic.lanl.gov/82.shtml

Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology

Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.

Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).[547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).[548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).[547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).[549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).[547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).[549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010).[550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.[551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.[551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.[551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).[547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).[549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008).[552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..

The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).[553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).[554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).[554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).[554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).[555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).[555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).[555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..

210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).[556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).[556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).[556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online.[557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..

Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).[237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).[237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..

References (13)

[237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).
[547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).
[548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).
[549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).
[550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010).
[551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.
[552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008).
[553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).
[554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).
[555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).
[556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).
[557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online.
[4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703

References

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1 PubChem

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2 Atomic Mass Data Center (AMDC), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.

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3 IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

Lead

Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

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4 IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI)

The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.

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5 Jefferson Lab, U.S. Department of Energy

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Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/

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6 Los Alamos National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy

Lead

The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.

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7 NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory

Lead

The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database

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8 PubChem Elements

Lead

This section provides all form of data related to element Lead.

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9 PubChem Elements

Lead

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Last updated: May 1, 2026

Data verified: May 12, 2026

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