Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
Standard Atomic Weight
72.63 uElectron configuration
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2Melting point
938.25 °CBoiling point
2832.85 °CDensity
5323.4 kg/m³Oxidation states
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4Electronegativity (Pauling)
2.01Ionization energy (1st)
7.899435 eVDiscovery year
1886Atomic radius
125 pmDetails
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
Images
Properties
Physical
- Atomic radius (empirical)
- 125 pm Compare Atomic radius (empirical) of all elements →
- Covalent radius
- 120 pm Compare Covalent radius of all elements →
- Van der Waals radius
- 211 pm Compare Van der Waals radius of all elements →
- Metallic radius
- 124 pm Compare Metallic radius of all elements →
- Density
- 5323.4 kg/m³ Compare Density of all elements →
- Molar volume
- 0.0136 L/mol
- Phase at STP
- Solid Compare Phase at STP of all elements →
- Melting point
- 938.25 °C Compare Melting point of all elements →
- Boiling point
- 2832.85 °C Compare Boiling point of all elements →
- Thermal conductivity
- 60.2 W/(m·K) Compare Thermal conductivity of all elements →
- Specific heat capacity
- 0.32 J/(g·K) Compare Specific heat capacity of all elements →
- Molar heat capacity
- 23.222 J/(mol·K) Compare Molar heat capacity of all elements →
- Crystal structure
- Diamond cubic Compare Crystal structure of all elements →
Chemical
- Electronegativity (Pauling)
- 2.01 Compare Electronegativity (Pauling) of all elements →
- Electronegativity (Allen)
- 1.994
- Electron affinity
- 1.232 eV
- Ionization energy (1st)
- 7.899435 eV Compare Ionization energy (1st) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (2nd)
- 15.934665 eV Compare Ionization energy (2nd) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (3rd)
- 34.057717 eV Compare Ionization energy (3rd) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (4th)
- 45.715657 eV Compare Ionization energy (4th) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (5th)
- 90.500312 eV Compare Ionization energy (5th) of all elements →
- Oxidation states
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 Compare Oxidation states of all elements →
- Valence electrons
- 4 Compare Valence electrons of all elements →
- Electron configuration
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
Thermodynamic
- Critical point (temperature)
- 9529 °C
- Heat of fusion
- 0.38285744 eV Compare Heat of fusion of all elements →
- Heat of vaporization
- 3.420221 eV Compare Heat of vaporization of all elements →
- Heat of sublimation
- 3.907343 eV
- Heat of atomization
- 3.907343 eV
- Atomization enthalpy
- 3.855522 eV
Nuclear
- Protons
- 32 Compare Protons of all elements →
- Neutrons
- 42 Compare Neutrons of all elements →
- Known isotopes
- 33 Compare Known isotopes of all elements →
- Stable isotopes
- 4 Compare Stable isotopes of all elements →
- Most stable isotope
- Ge-74
- Discovery year
- 1886
Abundance
- Abundance (Earth's crust)
- 1.5 mg/kg Compare Abundance (Earth's crust) of all elements →
- Abundance (ocean)
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L Compare Abundance (ocean) of all elements →
Crystal Structure
- Lattice constant a
- 566 pm
Electronic Structure
- Electrons per shell
- 2, 8, 18, 4 Compare Electrons per shell of all elements →
Identifiers
- CAS number
- 7440-56-4 Compare CAS number of all elements →
- Term symbol
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- InChI Key
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Electron Configuration Measured
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²Atomic model
Isotopes change neutron count, mass, and stability — not the electron configuration of a neutral atom.
Schematic atomic model, not to scale.
Atomic Fingerprint
Emission / Absorption Spectrum
Isotope Distribution
| Mass number | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 Stable | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% | Stable |
| 72 Stable | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% | Stable |
| 73 Stable | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% | Stable |
| 74 Stable | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% | Stable |
Phase / State
Reason: 913.3 °C below melting point (938.25 °C)
Schematic, not to scale
Phase transition points
Transition energies
Energy required to melt 1 mol at melting point
Energy required to vaporize 1 mol at boiling point
Energy required to sublime 1 mol at sublimation point
Density
At standard conditions
At standard conditions
Advanced
Atomic Spectra
Showing 10 of 32. Sorted by ion charge (ascending).
Lines Holdings ?
| Ion | Charge | Total lines | Transition probabilities | Level designations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
Levels Holdings ?
| Ion | Charge | Levels |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
Ionic Radii
| Charge | Coordination | Spin | Radius |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | N/A | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | N/A | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | N/A | 53 pm |
Compounds
Isotopes (4)
| Mass number | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life | Decay mode | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 Stable | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% ± 0.2700% | Stable | stable | |
| 72 Stable | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% ± 0.3200% | Stable | stable | |
| 73 Stable | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% ± 0.1200% | Stable | stable | |
| 74 Stable | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% ± 0.2000% | Stable | stable |
Spectral Lines
Showing 50 of 57. Only spectral lines with measured intensity are shown by default.
| Wavelength (nm) | Intensity | Ion stage | Type | Transition | Accuracy | Source | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Measured | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Measured | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | Measured | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | Measured | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | Measured | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | Measured | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | Measured | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Measured | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | Measured | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | Measured | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | Measured | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | Measured | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | Measured | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | Measured | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | Measured | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Measured | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | Measured | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | Measured | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Measured | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Measured | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | Measured | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | Measured | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | Measured | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Measured | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | Measured | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Measured | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | Measured | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | Measured | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Measured | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Measured | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | Measured | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | Measured | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | Measured | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | Measured | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Measured | NIST |
Extended Properties
Covalent Radii (Extended)
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö)
- 121 pm
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö, double)
- 111 pm
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö, triple)
- 114 pm
Van der Waals Radii
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
Atomic & Metallic Radii
- Atomic radius (Rahm)
- 234 pm
- Metallic radius (C12)
- 144 pm
Numbering Scales
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
Electronegativity Scales
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
Polarizability & Dispersion
- Dipole polarizability
- 40 a.u.
- Dipole polarizability (unc.)
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema Parameters
- Miedema molar volume
- 9.87 cm3/mol
- Miedema electron density
- 3
Supply Risk & Economics
- Production concentration
- 67
- Relative supply risk
- 8
- Political stability (top producer)
- 24
Phase Transitions & Allotropes
| Melting point | 1211.4 K |
| Boiling point | 3106.15 K |
| Critical point (temperature) | 9802.15 K |
Oxidation State Categories
Advanced Reference Data
Screening Constants (8)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.7063 |
| 2 | p | 3.9178 |
| 2 | s | 8.6352 |
| 3 | d | 15.7487 |
| 3 | p | 14.9864 |
| 3 | s | 14.2103 |
| 4 | p | 25.2196 |
| 4 | s | 23.9564 |
Crystal Radii Detail (3)
| Charge | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Origin |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
Isotope Decay Modes (50)
| Isotope | Mode | Intensity |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0.2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
X‑ray Scattering Factors (506)
| Energy (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3.01183 |
| 10.1617 | — | 3.05548 |
| 10.3261 | — | 3.09976 |
| 10.4931 | — | 3.14468 |
| 10.6628 | — | 3.19025 |
| 10.8353 | — | 3.21825 |
| 11.0106 | — | 3.20755 |
| 11.1886 | — | 3.19689 |
| 11.3696 | — | 3.18626 |
| 11.5535 | — | 3.17568 |
Additional Data
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
References (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
References (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
References (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
References
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.