Ruthenium (Ru)
transition-metalSolid
标准原子量
101.07 u电子排布
[Kr] 5s1 4d7熔点
2333.85 °C沸点
4149.85 °C密度
1.21e+4 kg/m³氧化态
−4, −2, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8电负性（鲍林）
2.2第一电离能
7.3605 eV发现年份
1828原子半径
130 pm详细信息
Ruthenium is a hard, platinum-group transition metal with atomic number 44. It is rare in the crust and is recovered chiefly with platinum and nickel-copper sulfide ores. Chemically it is notable for a wide range of oxidation states, especially +2, +3, +4, +6, and +8, and for forming many coordination and organometallic compounds. Metallic ruthenium improves hardness and corrosion resistance in some platinum and palladium alloys, while its oxides and complexes are important in catalysis and electrochemistry.
Ruthenium is a hard, white metal and has four crystal modifications. It does not tarnish at room temperatures, but oxidizes explosively. It is attacked by halogens, hydroxides, etc. Ruthenium can be plated by electrodeposition or by thermal decomposition methods. The metal is one of the most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium, and is alloyed with these metals to make electrical contacts for severe wear resistance. A ruthenium-molybdenum alloy is said to be superconductive at 10.6 K. The corrosion resistance of titanium is improved a hundredfold by addition of 0.1% ruthenium. It is a versatile catalyst. Hydrogen sulfide can be split catalytically by light using an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide. It is thought this may have application to removal of H2S from oil refining and other industrial processes. Compounds in at least eight oxidation states have been found, but of these, the +2, +3, and +4 states are the most common. Ruthenium tetroxide, like osmium tetroxide, is highly toxic. In addition, it may explode. Ruthenium compounds show a marked resemblance to those of cadmium.
The name derives from the Latin ruthenia for the old name of Russia. It was discovered in a crude platinum ore by the Russian chemist Gottfried Wilhelm Osann in 1828. Osann thought that he had found three new metals in the sample, pluranium, ruthenium, and polinium. In 1844, Russian chemist Karl Karlovich Klaus was able to show that Osann's mistake was due to the impurity of the sample, and Klaus was able to isolate the ruthenium metal.
Ruthenium was discovered by Karl Karlovich Klaus, a Russian chemist, in 1844 while analyzing the residue of a sample of platinum ore obtained from the Ural mountains. Apparently, Jedrzej Sniadecki, a Polish chemist, had produced ruthenium in 1807 but he withdrew his claim of discovery after other scientists failed to replicate his results. Ruthenium tends to occur along with deposits of platinum and is primarily obtained as a byproduct of mining and refining platinum. Ruthenium is also obtained as a byproduct of the nickel mining operation in the Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada.
From the Latin word Ruthenia, Russia. In 1827, Berzelius and Osann examined the residues left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural mountains in aqua regia. While Berzelius found no unusual metals, Osann thought he found three new metals, one of which he named ruthenium. In 1844 Klaus, generally recognized as the discoverer, showed that Osann's ruthenium oxide was very impure and that it contained a new metal. Klaus obtained 6 g of ruthenium from the portion of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia.
Pure ruthenium is a silvery gray, lustrous metal. It is hard and brittle at ordinary temperatures, has a high melting point, and resists attack by air, water, and many acids. Finely divided metal has a much larger reactive surface than compact metal.
Small additions of ruthenium harden platinum and palladium alloys used for wear-resistant electrical contacts, jewelry alloys, and some laboratory or industrial components. Ruthenium-containing materials are used in thick-film resistors and pastes for electronic circuits. Ruthenium dioxide, RuO₂, is an electrically conducting oxide used in electrochemical electrodes and as a catalyst component. Ruthenium complexes are also used as homogeneous catalysts, including catalysts for olefin metathesis and transfer hydrogenation. The radioisotope ¹⁰⁶Ru has been used in ophthalmic brachytherapy sources.
Ruthenium is primarily used as an alloying agent. Adding 0.1% ruthenium to titanium makes titanium 100 times more resistant to corrosion. Small amounts of ruthenium are added to platinum and palladium to strengthen them. These alloys are used in jewelry and in electrical contacts that must resist wear.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
100Ru is the product of a rare (and hence very long-lived) nuclear decay process from the double beta decay of 100Mo. A careful measurement of the half-life for this decay, which is 7.1×1018 years, can be used to place an upper limit on the mass of the electron neutrino, which is a neutral and weakly interacting subatomic particle first postulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 [326] M. J. Hornish, L. De Braeckeleer, A. S. Barabash, V. I. Umatov. Phys. Rev. C74, 044314 (2006)..
Ruthenium and molybdenum share many similarities. They both have seven isotopes (96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, and 104 for ruthenium and 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100 for molybdenum), and their isotopes are formed by the same nucleosynthesisp-processes, r-processes, and s-processes, namely, p, r, s and r, s only, s and r, s and r, and r, respectively. The molybdenum and ruthenium isotopic composition of most meteorites lie along a mixing line (Fig. IUPAC.44.1). The ruthenium and molybdenum of silicates in the Earth also lie on this line, which supports the hypothesis that the Earth accreted homogeneously. That is, the feeding zone of the Earth did not change substantially over time as both the bulk of the Earth and the late veneer accreted from material having the same ruthenium-molybdenum isotopic reservoir [327] N. Dauphas, A. M. Davis, B. Marty, L. Reisberg. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.226, 465 (2004)..
Isotopes in Medicine
106Ru plaque brachytherapy has been used for eye preservation and tumor control of uveal (the middle layer of the wall of the eye) melanoma [333] L. Tarmann, W. Wackernagel, A. Avian, C. Mayer, M. Schneider, P. Winkler, G. Langmann. Br. J. Ophthalmol.99, 1644 (2015).. The half-life of 106Ru is 373 days.
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
96Ru is used to produce radioisotopes 94Ru (with a half-life of 52 min) and 95Ru (with half-life of about 1.64 h) via the reactions 96Ru (n, 3n) 94Ru and 96Ru (n, 2n) 95Ru, respectively (Fig. IUPAC.44.2) [334] A. R. Ketring, G. J. Ehrhardt, M. F. Embree, T. T. Tyler, J. A. Gawenis, S. S. Jurisson, H. P. Engelbrecht, C. J. Smith, C. S. Cutler. Alasbimn J.5 (19), (2003)., [335] J. W. Arblaster. Platinum Met. Rev.55, 124 (2011).. 104Ru is used to produce the radioisotope 105Rh (with a half-life of about 35 h) via the reaction 104Ru (p, γ) 105Rh. 105Rh has been used in the treatment of bone pain [334] A. R. Ketring, G. J. Ehrhardt, M. F. Embree, T. T. Tyler, J. A. Gawenis, S. S. Jurisson, H. P. Engelbrecht, C. J. Smith, C. S. Cutler. Alasbimn J.5 (19), (2003)..
Ruthenium chemistry spans many oxidation states, with +2, +3, and +4 common in coordination compounds and oxides. Ruthenium(III) chloride, RuCl₃, is a common precursor for laboratory synthesis, although commercial material may be hydrated or non-stoichiometric. Ruthenium dioxide, RuO₂, is a stable, conductive oxide with rutile-type structure. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, contains ruthenium in the +8 state and is a volatile, powerful oxidant. Organometallic ruthenium compounds include arene complexes and carbene complexes used in catalysis.
See more information at the Ruthenium compound page.
Bulk ruthenium metal is relatively inert, but dusts and powders can be fire or inhalation hazards in industrial handling. Soluble ruthenium salts and many complexes should be treated as toxic unless specifically characterized. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, is especially hazardous because it is volatile, strongly oxidizing, and damaging to tissue. Radioactive isotopes such as ¹⁰⁶Ru present isotope-specific radiation and contamination risks, particularly if dispersed as fine particles or volatile species.
Ruthenium occurs naturally at very low concentrations, mainly associated with platinum-group minerals and sulfide ore systems rather than as a major independent mineral resource. In surface environments it is generally immobile as metal or insoluble oxide, but soluble complexes can behave differently under oxidizing or complexing conditions. Anthropogenic releases are normally small and localized, except in special cases involving mining, refining, industrial catalysts, or nuclear fission products.
Ruthenium is produced as a by-product during refining of platinum-group metal concentrates and, to a lesser extent, nickel-copper sulfide ores. Supply is therefore tied to the mining and refining of other metals rather than to primary ruthenium mining. Demand is modest compared with platinum, palladium, and rhodium, but specialized uses in electronics, catalysts, electrochemical materials, and alloys can require high purity. Recycling occurs from some spent catalysts, electronic materials, and precious-metal alloys, although recovery depends strongly on concentration and process economics.
A member of the platinum group, ruthenium occurs native with other members of the group in ores found in the Ural mountains and in North and South America. It is also found along with other platinum metals in small but commercial quantities in pentlandite in the Sudbury, Ontario nickel-mining region, and in the pyroxinite deposits of South Africa.
Ruthenium is a heavy element formed mainly by neutron-capture nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars. It is far less abundant cosmically than iron-group elements, but it is present in meteorites and planetary materials at trace levels. Its association with other platinum-group elements reflects both nucleosynthetic origin and geochemical partitioning into metal-rich and sulfide-rich phases.
- Ruthenium was named from Ruthenia, a historical Latin name associated with parts of Eastern Europe.
- It is one of the least abundant stable platinum-group metals in Earth’s crust.
- Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, is volatile despite being an oxide of a heavy metal.
- The metal can form a passive oxide surface that contributes to corrosion resistance.
- Some commercial RuCl₃ is not a simple anhydrous compound but a mixture of hydrated chloride species.
- Ruthenium catalysts are central to many well-known olefin metathesis reactions.
图片
性质
物理性质
- 原子半径（经验值）
- 130 pm 比较所有元素的原子半径（经验值） →
- 共价半径
- 146 pm 比较所有元素的共价半径 →
- 范德华半径
- 207 pm 比较所有元素的范德华半径 →
- 金属半径
- 125 pm 比较所有元素的金属半径 →
- 密度
- 1.21 × 104 kg/m³ 比较所有元素的密度 →
- 摩尔体积
- 0.0083 L/mol
- 标准温度和压力下的物相
- 固态 比较所有元素的标准温度和压力下的物相 →
- 熔点
- 2333.85 °C 比较所有元素的熔点 →
- 沸点
- 4149.85 °C 比较所有元素的沸点 →
- 热导率
- 117 W/(m·K) 比较所有元素的热导率 →
- 比热容
- 0.238 J/(g·K) 比较所有元素的比热容 →
- 摩尔热容
- 24.06 J/(mol·K) 比较所有元素的摩尔热容 →
- 晶体结构
- 六方密堆积 比较所有元素的晶体结构 →
化学性质
- 电负性（鲍林）
- 2.2 比较所有元素的电负性（鲍林） →
- 电负性（Allen）
- 1.54
- 电子亲和能
- 1.05 eV
- 第一电离能
- 7.3605 eV 比较所有元素的第一电离能 →
- 第二电离能
- 16.760058 eV 比较所有元素的第二电离能 →
- 第三电离能
- 28.470098 eV 比较所有元素的第三电离能 →
- 第四电离能
- 45.000155 eV 比较所有元素的第四电离能 →
- 第五电离能
- 59.000203 eV 比较所有元素的第五电离能 →
- 氧化态
- −4, −2, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8 比较所有元素的氧化态 →
- 价电子
- 8 比较所有元素的价电子 →
- 电子排布
- [Kr] 5s1 4d7
热力学性质
- 熔化热
- 0.24874333 eV 比较所有元素的熔化热 →
- 汽化热
- 6.166762 eV 比较所有元素的汽化热 →
- 升华热
- 6.736798 eV
- 原子化热
- 6.736798 eV
- 原子化焓
- 6.743017 eV
核性质
- 质子
- 44 比较所有元素的质子 →
- 中子
- 58 比较所有元素的中子 →
- 已知同位素
- 41 比较所有元素的已知同位素 →
- 稳定同位素
- 6 比较所有元素的稳定同位素 →
- 最稳定同位素
- Ru-102
- 发现年份
- 1828
丰度
- 丰度（地壳）
- 0.001 mg/kg 比较所有元素的丰度（地壳） →
- 丰度（海洋）
- 7 × 10−7 mg/L 比较所有元素的丰度（海洋） →
晶体结构
- 晶格常数a
- 270 pm
电子结构
- 各电子层电子数
- 2, 8, 18, 15, 1 比较所有元素的各电子层电子数 →
标识符
- CAS登记号
- 7440-18-8 比较所有元素的CAS登记号 →
- 谱项符号
- 5F5
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ru
- InChI Key
- KJTLSVCANCCWHF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
电子排布 实测值
Ru: 4d⁷ 5s¹[Kr] 4d⁷ 5s¹1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d⁷ 5s¹原子模型
不同同位素的中子数、质量和稳定性不同，但中性原子的电子排布不变。
原子模型示意图，未按比例绘制。
原子指纹
发射 / 吸收光谱
同位素分布
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 98 稳定 | 97.9052868 ± 0.0000069 | 1.8700% | 稳定 |
| 99 稳定 | 98.9059341 ± 0.0000011 | 12.7600% | 稳定 |
| 100 稳定 | 99.9042143 ± 0.0000011 | 12.6000% | 稳定 |
| 101 稳定 | 100.9055769 ± 0.0000012 | 17.0600% | 稳定 |
| 102 稳定 | 101.9043441 ± 0.0000012 | 31.5500% | 稳定 |
| 104 稳定 | 103.9054275 ± 0.0000028 | 18.6200% | 稳定 |
物相 / 状态
原因: 低于熔点（2333.85 °C）2308.8 °C
示意图，未按比例绘制
相变点
相变能
在熔点熔化1 mol物质所需的能量
在沸点汽化1 mol物质所需的能量
在升华点升华1 mol物质所需的能量
密度
标准条件下
标准条件下
原子光谱
已显示10项，共44项。 按离子电荷升序排列。
收录能级 ?
| 离子 | 电荷 | 能级 |
|---|---|---|
| Ru I | 0 | 329 |
| Ru II | +1 | 235 |
| Ru III | +2 | 26 |
| Ru IV | +3 | 2 |
| Ru V | +4 | 2 |
| Ru VI | +5 | 2 |
| Ru VII | +6 | 2 |
| Ru VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ru IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ru X | +9 | 2 |
离子半径
| 电荷 | 配位 | 自旋 | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +3 | 6 | 暂无 | 68 pm |
| +4 | 6 | 暂无 | 62 pm |
| +5 | 6 | 暂无 | 56.49999999999999 pm |
| +7 | 4 | 暂无 | 38 pm |
| +8 | 4 | 暂无 | 36 pm |
化合物
同位素 (6)
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 | 衰变方式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 98 稳定 | 97.9052868 ± 0.0000069 | 1.8700% ± 0.0300% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 99 稳定 | 98.9059341 ± 0.0000011 | 12.7600% ± 0.1400% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 100 稳定 | 99.9042143 ± 0.0000011 | 12.6000% ± 0.0700% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 101 稳定 | 100.9055769 ± 0.0000012 | 17.0600% ± 0.0200% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 102 稳定 | 101.9043441 ± 0.0000012 | 31.5500% ± 0.1400% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 104 稳定 | 103.9054275 ± 0.0000028 | 18.6200% ± 0.2700% | 稳定 | stable |
扩展性质
共价半径（扩展）
- 共价半径（Pyykkö）
- 125 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，双键）
- 114 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，三键）
- 103 pm
范德华半径
- Batsanov
- 205 pm
- Alvarez
- 246 pm
- UFF
- 296.3 pm
- MM3
- 234 pm
原子半径与金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 237 pm
- 金属半径（C12）
- 134 pm
编号标度
- Mendeleev
- 60
- Pettifor
- 63
- Glawe
- 61
电负性标度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 4
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 3
极化率与色散
- 偶极极化率
- 72 a.u.
- 偶极极化率（不确定度）
- 10 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 809 Ha·Bohr6
化学亲和力
- 质子亲和能
- 774 kJ/mol
- 气相碱性
- 751.4 kJ/mol
Miedema参数
- Miedema摩尔体积
- 8.2 cm3/mol
- Miedema电子密度
- 6
供应风险与经济性
- 生产集中度
- 60
- 相对供应风险
- 8
- 储量分布
- 95
- 政治稳定性（最大生产国）
- 44
- 政治稳定性（最大储量国）
- 44
相变与同素异形体
| 熔点 | 2606.15 K |
| 沸点 | 4420.15 K |
氧化态分类
高级参考数据
屏蔽常数 (10)
| n | 轨道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.9077 |
| 2 | p | 4.0492 |
| 2 | s | 11.6202 |
| 3 | d | 14.6411 |
| 3 | p | 16.7789 |
| 3 | s | 16.3988 |
| 4 | d | 31.1872 |
| 4 | p | 27.5652 |
| 4 | s | 26.344 |
| 5 | s | 37.5155 |
晶体半径详情 (5)
| 电荷 | CN | 自旋 | rcrystal (pm) | 来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | VI | 82 | ||
| 4 | VI | 76 | from r^3 vs V plots, from metallic oxides, | |
| 5 | VI | 70.5 | estimated, from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 7 | IV | 52 | ||
| 8 | IV | 50 |
同位素衰变方式 (62)
| 同位素 | 模式 | 强度 |
|---|---|---|
| 85 | B+ | — |
| 85 | B+p | — |
| 85 | p | — |
| 86 | B+ | — |
| 86 | B+p | — |
| 87 | B+ | — |
| 87 | B+p | — |
| 88 | B+ | 100% |
| 88 | B+p | 3.6% |
| 89 | B+ | 100% |
X射线散射因子 (615)
| 能量 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 1.51919 |
| 10.1617 | — | 1.51438 |
| 10.3261 | — | 1.51486 |
| 10.4931 | — | 1.54335 |
| 10.6628 | — | 1.57238 |
| 10.8353 | — | 1.60195 |
| 11.0105 | — | 1.63207 |
| 11.1886 | — | 1.66277 |
| 11.3696 | — | 1.7032 |
| 11.5535 | — | 1.79614 |
补充数据
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1×10-3 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Ruthenium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele044.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
7×10-7 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Ruthenium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele044.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
A member of the platinum group, ruthenium occurs native with other members of the group in ores found in the Ural mountains and in North and South America. It is also found along with other platinum metals in small but commercial quantities in pentlandite in the Sudbury, Ontario nickel-mining region, and in the pyroxinite deposits of South Africa.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Ruthenium https://periodic.lanl.gov/44.shtml
Production
Production of this element (from raw materials or other compounds containing the element).
The metal is isolated commercially by a complex chemical process, the final stage of which is the hydrogen reduction of ammonium ruthenium chloride, which yields a powder. The powder is consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques or by argon-arc welding.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Ruthenium https://periodic.lanl.gov/44.shtml
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Ruthenium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.