Sulfur (S)
nonmetalSolid
Nguyên tử khối chuẩn
32,06 u [32,059, 32,076]Cấu hình electron
[Ne] 3s2 3p4Nhiệt độ nóng chảy
115,21 °CNhiệt độ sôi
444,6 °CKhối lượng riêng
2067 kg/m³Trạng thái oxi hóa
−2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6Độ âm điện (Pauling)
2,58Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 1)
10,360017 eVNăm phát hiện
1777Bán kính nguyên tử
100 pmChi tiết
Sulfur is a reactive nonmetal in group 16, occurring naturally as elemental sulfur and in sulfide and sulfate minerals. It forms many allotropes and a large range of compounds, especially with oxygen, hydrogen, metals, and organic groups. Its chemistry is central to fertilizers, petroleum refining, vulcanized rubber, and biological molecules such as amino acids and cofactors.
Sulfur is pale yellow, odorless, brittle solid, which is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. In every state, whether gas, liquid or solid, elemental sulfur occurs in more than one allotropic form or modification; these present a confusing multitude of forms whose relations are not yet fully understood.
In 1975, University of Pennsylvania scientists reported synthesis of polymeric sulfur nitride, which has the properties of a metal, although it contains no metal atoms. The material has unusual optical and electrical properties.
High-purity sulfur is commercially available in purities of 99.999+%.
Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur is obtained by fast cooling of the crystalline form. X-ray studies indicate that amorphous sulfur may have a helical structure with eight atoms per spiral. Crystalline sulfur seems to be made of rings, each containing eight sulfur atoms, which fit together to give a normal X-ray pattern.
The name derives from the Latin sulphurium and the Sanskrit sulveri. Sulfur was known as brenne stone for "combustible stone" from which brim-stone is derived. It was known from prehistoric times and thought to contain hydrogen and oxygen. In 1809, the French chemists Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenard proved the elemental nature of sulfur.
Sulfur, the tenth most abundant element in the universe, has been known since ancient times. Sometime around 1777, Antoine Lavoisier convinced the rest of the scientific community that sulfur was an element. Sulfur is a component of many common minerals, such as galena (PbS), gypsum (CaSO4·2(H2O), pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS or FeS), cinnabar (HgS), stibnite (Sb2S3), epsomite (MgSO4·7(H2O)), celestite (SrSO4) and barite (BaSO4). Nearly 25% of the sulfur produced today is recovered from petroleum refining operations and as a byproduct of extracting other materials from sulfur containing ores. The majority of the sulfur produced today is obtained from underground deposits, usually found in conjunction with salt deposits, with a process known as the Frasch process. Sulfur is a pale yellow, odorless and brittle material. It displays three allotropic forms: orthorhombic, monoclinic and amorphous. The orthorhombic form is the most stable form of sulfur. Monoclinic sulfur exists between the temperatures of 96°C and 119°C and reverts back to the orthorhombic form when cooled. Amorphous sulfur is formed when molten sulfur is quickly cooled. Amorphous sulfur is soft and elastic and eventually reverts back to the orthorhombic form.
Known to the ancients; referred to in Genesis as brimstone.
Pure sulfur is most familiar as a brittle, bright yellow crystalline solid at room temperature, usually composed of S₈ rings. It melts to a mobile yellow liquid that darkens and becomes viscous on further heating as polymeric sulfur chains form.
Most sulfur is converted to sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄, a basic industrial chemical used in phosphate fertilizer manufacture, metal processing, petroleum refining, and many chemical syntheses. Elemental sulfur is used in rubber vulcanization, some fungicides, and specialty chemical production. Sulfur compounds are used in matches, black powder historically, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and battery materials, depending on the compound rather than the element alone.
Most of the sulfur that is produced is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Large amounts of sulfuric acid, nearly 40 million tons, are used each year to make fertilizers, lead-acid batteries, and in many industrial processes. Smaller amounts of sulfur are used to vulcanize natural rubbers, as an insecticide (the Greek poet Homer mentioned "pest-averting sulphur" nearly 2,800 years ago!), in the manufacture of gunpowder and as a dying agent.
In addition to sulfuric acid, sulfur forms other interesting compounds. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas that smells like rotten eggs. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), formed by burning sulfur in air, is used as a bleaching agent, solvent, disinfectant and as a refrigerant. When combined with water (H2O), sulfur dioxide forms sulfurous acid (H2SO3), a weak acid that is a major component of acid rain.
Sulfur is a component of black gunpowder, and is used in the vulcanization of natural rubber and a fungicide. It is also used extensively in making phosphatic fertilizers. A tremendous tonnage is used to produce sulfuric acid, the most important manufactured chemical.
It is used to make sulfite paper and other papers, to fumigate, and to bleach dried fruits. The element is a good insulator.
Sulfur is essential to life. It is a minor constituent of fats, body fluids, and skeletal minerals.
Isotopes in Biology
The stable sulfur isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) has been used to distinguish whether animal tissues grew in freshwater or in marine ecosystems. The isotopes do not fractionate (separate) substantially with trophic influences (the movement of sulfur through and into plant and animal systems), and the isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) is usually substantially different between freshwater and marine environments. As an example, by analyzing sulfur isotope-amount ratios in bird feathers, the environment in which the bird was living when these feathers developed can be determined. This enables one to track bird habitats and migration patterns throughout the year (Fig. IUPAC.16.1) [141] C. E. Hebert, M. Bur, D. Sherman, J. L. Shutt. Ecol. Appl.18, 561 (2008)..
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of sulfur possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, and they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are substantial variations in the isotopic abundances of sulfur in natural terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.16.2). These variations are useful in investigating the origin of substances and studying environmental, hydrological, and geological processes [13] M. W. Wieser, T. B. Coplen. Pure Appl Chem.83, 359 (2011)., [17] T. B. Coplen, J. A. Hopple, J. K. Böhlke, H. S. Peiser, S. E. Rieder, H. R. Krouse, K. J. R. Rosman, T. Ding, R. D. Vocke, K. Revesz, A. Lamberty, P. D. P. Taylor, P. D. Bièvre. United States Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report, 01-4222, (2002).. The isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) can be used to trace natural and anthropogenic sources of sulfur. Examples include studies of acid mine drainage, the cycling of sulfur in agricultural watersheds, groundwater contamination from landfills, and sources of salinity in coastal aquifers [142] International Atomic Energy Agency. Guidelines for the use of Isotopes of Sulfur in Soil–Plant Studies, International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna, Austria (2003)., [143] I. M. Cozzarelli, J. M. Suflita, G. A. Ulrich, S. H. Harris, M. A. Scholl, J. L. Schlottmann, S. Christenson. Environ. Sci. Technol.34, 4025 (2000)., [144] M. Edraki, S. D. Golding, K. A. Baublys, M. G. Lawrence. Appl. Geochem.20, 789 (2005)..
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
The isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) can be used to authenticate the dietary source of cattle. First, stable isotopes are measured to infer the dietary source of the cattle. Once the source of the diet is found, the isotopic compositions can be traced in certain muscle groups of the cattle and can be used to determine if the diet of the animal has been changed or if the feed is consistent with what the animal has been claimed to have been fed [145] B. Bahar, A. P. Moloney, F. J. Monahan, S. M. Harrison, A. Zazzo, C. M. Scrimgeour, I. S. Begley, O. Schmidt. J. Anim. Sci.87, 905 (2009)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
35S has a half-life of 87 days, which is an ideal duration for use as a conservative tracer in atmospheric processes. 35SO2 gas is produced as a natural product of argon exposure to cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Because 35SO2 gas is present in the atmosphere and then precipitates and falls as moisture in the form of 35SO4 2-, 35S can act as a tracer to study air mass transport dynamics and atmospheric oxidation capacity [147] A. Priyadarshi, G. Dominguez, J. Savarino, M. Thiemens. Geophys. Res. Lett.38, L13808 (2011).. Analyses of 35S in lake water and precipitation can also be used as a tracer to monitor contributions of sulfur that originated in precipitation to surface waters. If a water tests positive for the isotope 35S, it provides evidence that the water had been affected by recent (<~1 year) precipitation [148] INSTAAR University of Colorado Boulder. Sulfur 35, INSTAAR University of Colorado Boulder (2014), Feb. 24; http://snobear.colorado.edu/Daniel/isotopes/sulfur35.html., [149] Y. Kim, K. S. Lee, D. C. Koh, D. H. Lee, S. G. Lee, W. B. Park, G. W. Koh, N. C. Woo. J. Hydrol.270, 282 (2003)., [150] Y. L. Hong, G. Kim. Anal. Chem.77, 3390 (2005).. 35S is used in direct labeling of elemental sulfur or sulfate sources to trace the fate of sulfur in fertilizers [142] International Atomic Energy Agency. Guidelines for the use of Isotopes of Sulfur in Soil–Plant Studies, International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna, Austria (2003)..
Sulfur commonly shows oxidation states from −2 to +6. Hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, contains sulfur in the −2 state and is a weak acid and reducing agent. Sulfur dioxide, SO₂, and sulfur trioxide, SO₃, are key oxides leading to sulfurous acid, H₂SO₃, and sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄. Metal sulfides, sulfates, thiosulfates, and organosulfur compounds are widespread. Disulfide bonds, commonly written as R–S–S–R, are important in protein structure.
Organic compounds containing sulfur are very important. Calcium sulfur, ammonium sulfate, carbon disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are but a few of the many important compounds of sulfur.
See more information at the Sulfur compound page.
Elemental sulfur has relatively low acute toxicity, but dust can irritate eyes, skin, and airways and can form combustible dust clouds. Burning sulfur produces sulfur dioxide, SO₂, a choking, toxic gas. Hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, is highly toxic and can be rapidly fatal at high concentrations; odor is not a reliable warning at dangerous levels. Concentrated sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄, is strongly corrosive and dehydrating.
Carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide should be handled carefully. Hydrogen sulfide in small concentrations can be metabolized, but in higher concentrations it quickly can cause death by respiratory paralysis.
Sulfur cycles among rocks, oceans, air, and living organisms through oxidation, reduction, volcanic emissions, sea spray, weathering, and microbial metabolism. Sulfate is a major dissolved ion in seawater and an essential plant nutrient. Reduced sulfur compounds can form in anoxic sediments, while atmospheric sulfur dioxide, SO₂, can oxidize to sulfate aerosols and contribute to acid deposition.
Modern sulfur supply is dominated by recovery from natural gas and petroleum refining, where removal of hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, and other sulfur compounds is required to meet fuel specifications and reduce emissions. This makes much sulfur a by-product rather than a primary mined material. Some native sulfur and sulfide ore sources have historical importance, but recovered sulfur and sulfuric acid production now shape demand. Fertilizer manufacture is the largest use, and sulfuric acid is often produced and consumed close to heavy industrial sites because transport and handling are costly.
Sulfur is found in meteorites. R.W. Wood suggests that the dark area near the crater Aristarchus is a sulfur deposit.
Sulfur occurs native in the vicinity of volcanos and hot springs. It is widely distributed in nature as iron pyrites, galena, sphalerite, cinnabar, stibnite, gypsum, epsom salts, celestite, barite, etc.
Sulfur is a cosmically common element for its mass range, made mainly in massive stars during advanced burning stages and dispersed by supernovae. It is found in meteorites, planetary crusts, volcanic gases, and icy-body chemistry. On Earth and other rocky bodies it partitions into sulfide minerals, sulfate salts, magmas, and atmospheres depending on oxidation conditions.
- Sulfur has many allotropes, but ordinary crystalline sulfur is dominated by crown-shaped S₈ molecules.
- Molten sulfur becomes unusually viscous near 160 °C because S₈ rings open and polymerize.
- The Frasch process once mined native sulfur by melting it underground with superheated water.
- Sulfur vulcanization strengthens natural rubber by forming cross-links between polymer chains.
- Sulfate minerals such as gypsum can preserve information about ancient oxidation conditions.
Hình ảnh
Tính chất
Vật lý
- Bán kính nguyên tử (thực nghiệm)
- 100 pm So sánh Bán kính nguyên tử (thực nghiệm) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị
- 105 pm So sánh Bán kính cộng hóa trị của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Bán kính van der Waals
- 180 pm So sánh Bán kính van der Waals của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Bán kính kim loại
- 104 pm So sánh Bán kính kim loại của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Khối lượng riêng
- 2067 kg/m³ So sánh Khối lượng riêng của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Thể tích mol
- 0,0155 L/mol
- Pha ở STP
- Rắn So sánh Pha ở STP của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt độ nóng chảy
- 115,21 °C So sánh Nhiệt độ nóng chảy của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt độ sôi
- 444,6 °C So sánh Nhiệt độ sôi của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Độ dẫn nhiệt
- 0,27 W/(m·K) So sánh Độ dẫn nhiệt của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt dung riêng
- 0,708 J/(g·K) So sánh Nhiệt dung riêng của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt dung mol
- 22,7 J/(mol·K) So sánh Nhiệt dung mol của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Cấu trúc tinh thể
- Trực thoi So sánh Cấu trúc tinh thể của tất cả nguyên tố →
Hóa học
- Độ âm điện (Pauling)
- 2,58 So sánh Độ âm điện (Pauling) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Độ âm điện (Allen)
- 2,589
- Ái lực electron
- 2,0771 eV
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 1)
- 10,360017 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 1) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 2)
- 23,33796 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 2) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 3)
- 34,86012 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 3) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 4)
- 47,222163 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 4) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 5)
- 72,59475 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 5) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Trạng thái oxi hóa
- −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 So sánh Trạng thái oxi hóa của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Electron hóa trị
- 6 So sánh Electron hóa trị của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Các dạng thù hình
- ["monoclinic", "rhombic"]
- Cấu hình electron
- [Ne] 3s2 3p4
Nhiệt động lực học
- Điểm tới hạn (nhiệt độ)
- 1041 °C
- Điểm tới hạn (áp suất)
- 2,07e+7 Pa
- Nhiệt nóng chảy
- 0,01793025 eV So sánh Nhiệt nóng chảy của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt hóa hơi
- 0,46639374 eV So sánh Nhiệt hóa hơi của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt thăng hoa
- 2,870913 eV
- Nhiệt nguyên tử hóa
- 2,870913 eV
- Enthalpy nguyên tử hóa
- 2,872675 eV
Hạt nhân
- Proton
- 16 So sánh Proton của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Neutron
- 16 So sánh Neutron của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Các đồng vị đã biết
- 24 So sánh Các đồng vị đã biết của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Đồng vị bền
- 4 So sánh Đồng vị bền của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Đồng vị bền nhất
- S-32
- Năm phát hiện
- 1777
Độ phổ biến
- Độ phổ biến (vỏ Trái Đất)
- 350 mg/kg So sánh Độ phổ biến (vỏ Trái Đất) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Độ phổ biến (đại dương)
- 905 mg/L So sánh Độ phổ biến (đại dương) của tất cả nguyên tố →
Cấu trúc tinh thể
- Hằng số mạng a
- 1047 pm
Cấu trúc electron
- Số electron trong mỗi lớp
- 2, 8, 6 So sánh Số electron trong mỗi lớp của tất cả nguyên tố →
Mã định danh
- Số CAS
- 7704-34-9 So sánh Số CAS của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Ký hiệu số hạng
- 3P2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/S
- Khóa InChI
- NINIDFKCEFEMDL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Cấu hình electron Đo đạc
S: 3s² 3p⁴[Ne] 3s² 3p⁴1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁴Mô hình nguyên tử
Các đồng vị khác nhau về số neutron, khối lượng và độ bền — không khác nhau về cấu hình electron của nguyên tử trung hòa.
Mô hình nguyên tử minh họa, không theo tỷ lệ.
Dấu vân tay nguyên tử
Phổ phát xạ / hấp thụ
Phân bố đồng vị
| Số khối | Khối lượng nguyên tử (u) | Độ phổ biến tự nhiên | Chu kỳ bán rã |
|---|---|---|---|
| 32 Bền | 31,9720711744 ± 0,0000000014 | 94,9900% | Bền |
| 33 Bền | 32,9714589098 ± 0,0000000015 | 0,7500% | Bền |
| 34 Bền | 33,967867004 ± 0,000000047 | 4,2500% | Bền |
| 36 Bền | 35,96708071 ± 0,0000002 | 0,0100% | Bền |
Pha / Trạng thái
Lý do: thấp hơn nhiệt độ nóng chảy (115,21 °C) một lượng 90,2 °C
Sơ đồ minh họa, không theo tỷ lệ
Điểm chuyển pha
Năng lượng chuyển pha
Năng lượng cần để làm nóng chảy 1 mol tại nhiệt độ nóng chảy
Năng lượng cần để hóa hơi 1 mol tại nhiệt độ sôi
Năng lượng cần để làm thăng hoa 1 mol tại nhiệt độ thăng hoa
Khối lượng riêng
Ở điều kiện chuẩn
Ở điều kiện chuẩn
Nâng cao
Phổ nguyên tử
Đang hiển thị 10 trên 16. Sắp xếp theo điện tích ion (tăng dần).
Dữ liệu vạch phổ ?
| Ion | Điện tích | Tổng số vạch | Xác suất chuyển mức | Ký hiệu mức năng lượng |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| S I | 0 | 1437 | 1052 | 1429 |
| S II | +1 | 1349 | 753 | 1349 |
| S III | +2 | 329 | 273 | 329 |
| S IV | +3 | 1199 | 999 | 1199 |
| S V | +4 | 866 | 699 | 866 |
| S VI | +5 | 457 | 393 | 457 |
| S VII | +6 | 259 | 253 | 255 |
| S VIII | +7 | 254 | 253 | 254 |
| S IX | +8 | 175 | 175 | 175 |
| S X | +9 | 270 | 268 | 270 |
Dữ liệu mức năng lượng ?
| Ion | Điện tích | Mức năng lượng |
|---|---|---|
| S I | 0 | 382 |
| S II | +1 | 247 |
| S III | +2 | 59 |
| S IV | +3 | 142 |
| S V | +4 | 150 |
| S VI | +5 | 88 |
| S VII | +6 | 57 |
| S VIII | +7 | 54 |
| S IX | +8 | 45 |
| S X | +9 | 44 |
Bán kính ion
| Điện tích | Phối trí | Spin | Bán kính |
|---|---|---|---|
| -2 | 6 | Không có | 184 pm |
| +4 | 6 | Không có | 37 pm |
| +6 | 4 | Không có | 12 pm |
| +6 | 6 | Không có | 28.999999999999996 pm |
Hợp chất
Đồng vị (4)
Eleven isotopes of sulfur exist. None of the four isotopes that are found in nature are radioactive. A finely divided form of sulfur, known as flowers of sulfur, is obtained by sublimation.
| Số khối | Khối lượng nguyên tử (u) | Độ phổ biến tự nhiên | Chu kỳ bán rã | Kiểu phân rã | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 32 Bền | 31,9720711744 ± 0,0000000014 | 94,9900% ± 0,2600% | Bền | stable | |
| 33 Bền | 32,9714589098 ± 0,0000000015 | 0,7500% ± 0,0200% | Bền | stable | |
| 34 Bền | 33,967867004 ± 0,000000047 | 4,2500% ± 0,2400% | Bền | stable | |
| 36 Bền | 35,96708071 ± 0,0000002 | 0,0100% ± 0,0100% | Bền | stable |
Vạch phổ
Đang hiển thị 50 trên 556. Theo mặc định, chỉ hiển thị các vạch phổ có cường độ đã được đo.
| Bước sóng (nm) | Cường độ | Bậc ion hóa | Loại | Chuyển mức | Độ chính xác | Nguồn | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 545.3853 nm | 42000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 543.2797 nm | 30000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 416.2665 nm | 25000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 532.0715 nm | 24000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 415.3066 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 503.2435 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 542.8658 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 547.3617 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 550.9702 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 560.6158 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 563.998 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 414.5059 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 429.44 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 481.5553 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 534.5715 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 393.326 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 2F | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 402.875 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 414.2259 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 417.4266 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4d 2G | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 426.7762 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 452.4942 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 500.9564 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 501.4044 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 521.2614 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 630.5479 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4D → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 556.4958 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 564.0336 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 564.6998 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 565.9998 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 628.6951 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 392.3449 nm | 10000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 2F | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 446.358 nm | 10000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).5s 4P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 639.7363 nm | 10000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4D → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 471.6272 nm | 9900 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 499.1968 nm | 9800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 502.72 nm | 9800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2S* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 520.1025 nm | 9800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 566.4773 nm | 9700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 631.2666 nm | 7900 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 399.3499 nm | 7800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 403.2767 nm | 7800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 417.4001 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4d 2G | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 446.443 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(3P<2>).4f 2[5]* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 448.3428 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).5s 4P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 465.6762 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 491.7197 nm | 7600 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 492.5347 nm | 7600 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 510.3332 nm | 7600 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 581.9238 nm | 7500 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 639.8015 nm | 7500 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4D → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Đo đạc | NIST |
Tính chất mở rộng
Bán kính cộng hóa trị (mở rộng)
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Pyykkö)
- 103 pm
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Pyykkö, liên kết đôi)
- 94 pm
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Pyykkö, liên kết ba)
- 95 pm
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Bragg)
- 102 pm
Bán kính van der Waals
- Bondi
- 180 pm
- Batsanov
- 180 pm
- Alvarez
- 189 pm
- UFF
- 403,5 pm
- MM3
- 215 pm
- Dreiding
- 403 pm
- Rowland–Taylor
- 181 pm
Bán kính nguyên tử và kim loại
- Bán kính nguyên tử (Rahm)
- 214 pm
- Bán kính kim loại (C12)
- 127 pm
Các thang đánh số
- Mendeleev
- 100
- Pettifor
- 94
- Glawe
- 96
Các thang độ âm điện
- Ghosh
- 0
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 6
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 5
Độ phân cực hóa và tán sắc
- Độ phân cực hóa lưỡng cực
- 19,4 a.u.
- Độ phân cực hóa lưỡng cực (độ không đảm bảo)
- 0,1 a.u.
- C₆
- 134 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 140 Ha·Bohr6
Ái lực hóa học
- Ái lực proton
- 664,3 kJ/mol
- Độ bazơ pha khí
- 640,2 kJ/mol
Rủi ro nguồn cung và kinh tế
- Mức độ tập trung sản xuất
- 17
- Rủi ro nguồn cung tương đối
- 4
- Ổn định chính trị (quốc gia sản xuất lớn nhất)
- 24
Chuyển pha và các dạng thù hình
| Nhiệt độ chuyển pha | 368,35 K |
| Nhiệt độ sôi | 717,76 K |
| Điểm tới hạn (nhiệt độ) | 1314,15 K |
| Điểm tới hạn (áp suất) | 20,7 MPa |
| Nhiệt độ nóng chảy | 388,36 K |
| Nhiệt độ sôi | 717,76 K |
| Điểm tới hạn (nhiệt độ) | 1314,15 K |
Phân loại trạng thái oxi hóa
Dữ liệu tham khảo chuyên sâu
Hằng số chắn (5)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0,4591 |
| 2 | p | 4,023 |
| 2 | s | 5,3712 |
| 3 | p | 10,5181 |
| 3 | s | 9,6331 |
Chi tiết bán kính tinh thể (4)
| Điện tích | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Nguồn gốc |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -2 | VI | 170 | Pauling's (1960) crystal radius, | |
| 4 | VI | 51 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 6 | IV | 26 | ||
| 6 | VI | 43 | calculated, |
Các kiểu phân rã đồng vị (38)
| Đồng vị | Chế độ | Cường độ |
|---|---|---|
| 26 | 2p | — |
| 27 | B+ | 100% |
| 27 | B+p | 61% |
| 27 | 2p | 3% |
| 28 | B+ | 100% |
| 28 | B+p | 20,7% |
| 29 | B+ | 100% |
| 29 | B+p | 46,4% |
| 30 | B+ | 100% |
| 31 | B+ | 100% |
Hệ số tán xạ tia X (504)
| Năng lượng (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 4,05213 |
| 10,1617 | — | 4,23511 |
| 10,3261 | — | 4,42637 |
| 10,4931 | — | 4,62625 |
| 10,6628 | — | 4,83517 |
| 10,8353 | — | 5,05351 |
| 11,0106 | — | 5,28172 |
| 11,1886 | — | 5,52024 |
| 11,3696 | — | 5,79892 |
| 11,5535 | — | 6,15554 |
Dữ liệu bổ sung
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
3.50×102 milligrams per kilogram
Tài liệu tham khảo (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
9.05×102 milligrams per liter
Tài liệu tham khảo (1)
Sources
Sources of this element.
Sulfur is found in meteorites. R.W. Wood suggests that the dark area near the crater Aristarchus is a sulfur deposit.
Sulfur occurs native in the vicinity of volcanos and hot springs. It is widely distributed in nature as iron pyrites, galena, sphalerite, cinnabar, stibnite, gypsum, epsom salts, celestite, barite, etc.
Tài liệu tham khảo (1)
- [6] Sulfur https://periodic.lanl.gov/16.shtml
Production
Production of this element (from raw materials or other compounds containing the element).
Sulfur is commercially recovered from wells sunk into the salt domes along the Gulf Coast of the U.S. Using the Frasch process heated water is forced into the wells to melt the sulfur, which is then brought to the surface.
Sulfur also occurs in natural gas and petroleum crudes and must be removed from these products. Formerly this was done chemically, which wasted the sulfur; new processes now permit recovery. Large amounts of sulfur are being recovered from Alberta gas fields.
Tài liệu tham khảo (1)
- [6] Sulfur https://periodic.lanl.gov/16.shtml
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
The isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) can be used to authenticate the dietary source of cattle. First, stable isotopes are measured to infer the dietary source of the cattle. Once the source of the diet is found, the isotopic compositions can be traced in certain muscle groups of the cattle and can be used to determine if the diet of the animal has been changed or if the feed is consistent with what the animal has been claimed to have been fed [145] B. Bahar, A. P. Moloney, F. J. Monahan, S. M. Harrison, A. Zazzo, C. M. Scrimgeour, I. S. Begley, O. Schmidt. J. Anim. Sci.87, 905 (2009)..
Tài liệu tham khảo (2)
- [145] B. Bahar, A. P. Moloney, F. J. Monahan, S. M. Harrison, A. Zazzo, C. M. Scrimgeour, I. S. Begley, O. Schmidt. J. Anim. Sci.87, 905 (2009).
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
Tài liệu tham khảo
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Sulfur.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.