Ruthenium (Ru)
transition-metalSolid
標準原子量
101.07 u電子配置
[Kr] 5s1 4d7融点
2333.85 °C沸点
4149.85 °C密度
1.21e+4 kg/m³酸化数
−4, −2, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8電気陰性度（Pauling）
2.2第1イオン化エネルギー
7.3605 eV発見年
1828原子半径
130 pm詳細
Ruthenium is a hard, platinum-group transition metal with atomic number 44. It is rare in the crust and is recovered chiefly with platinum and nickel-copper sulfide ores. Chemically it is notable for a wide range of oxidation states, especially +2, +3, +4, +6, and +8, and for forming many coordination and organometallic compounds. Metallic ruthenium improves hardness and corrosion resistance in some platinum and palladium alloys, while its oxides and complexes are important in catalysis and electrochemistry.
Ruthenium is a hard, white metal and has four crystal modifications. It does not tarnish at room temperatures, but oxidizes explosively. It is attacked by halogens, hydroxides, etc. Ruthenium can be plated by electrodeposition or by thermal decomposition methods. The metal is one of the most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium, and is alloyed with these metals to make electrical contacts for severe wear resistance. A ruthenium-molybdenum alloy is said to be superconductive at 10.6 K. The corrosion resistance of titanium is improved a hundredfold by addition of 0.1% ruthenium. It is a versatile catalyst. Hydrogen sulfide can be split catalytically by light using an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide. It is thought this may have application to removal of H2S from oil refining and other industrial processes. Compounds in at least eight oxidation states have been found, but of these, the +2, +3, and +4 states are the most common. Ruthenium tetroxide, like osmium tetroxide, is highly toxic. In addition, it may explode. Ruthenium compounds show a marked resemblance to those of cadmium.
The name derives from the Latin ruthenia for the old name of Russia. It was discovered in a crude platinum ore by the Russian chemist Gottfried Wilhelm Osann in 1828. Osann thought that he had found three new metals in the sample, pluranium, ruthenium, and polinium. In 1844, Russian chemist Karl Karlovich Klaus was able to show that Osann's mistake was due to the impurity of the sample, and Klaus was able to isolate the ruthenium metal.
Ruthenium was discovered by Karl Karlovich Klaus, a Russian chemist, in 1844 while analyzing the residue of a sample of platinum ore obtained from the Ural mountains. Apparently, Jedrzej Sniadecki, a Polish chemist, had produced ruthenium in 1807 but he withdrew his claim of discovery after other scientists failed to replicate his results. Ruthenium tends to occur along with deposits of platinum and is primarily obtained as a byproduct of mining and refining platinum. Ruthenium is also obtained as a byproduct of the nickel mining operation in the Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada.
From the Latin word Ruthenia, Russia. In 1827, Berzelius and Osann examined the residues left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural mountains in aqua regia. While Berzelius found no unusual metals, Osann thought he found three new metals, one of which he named ruthenium. In 1844 Klaus, generally recognized as the discoverer, showed that Osann's ruthenium oxide was very impure and that it contained a new metal. Klaus obtained 6 g of ruthenium from the portion of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia.
Pure ruthenium is a silvery gray, lustrous metal. It is hard and brittle at ordinary temperatures, has a high melting point, and resists attack by air, water, and many acids. Finely divided metal has a much larger reactive surface than compact metal.
Small additions of ruthenium harden platinum and palladium alloys used for wear-resistant electrical contacts, jewelry alloys, and some laboratory or industrial components. Ruthenium-containing materials are used in thick-film resistors and pastes for electronic circuits. Ruthenium dioxide, RuO₂, is an electrically conducting oxide used in electrochemical electrodes and as a catalyst component. Ruthenium complexes are also used as homogeneous catalysts, including catalysts for olefin metathesis and transfer hydrogenation. The radioisotope ¹⁰⁶Ru has been used in ophthalmic brachytherapy sources.
Ruthenium is primarily used as an alloying agent. Adding 0.1% ruthenium to titanium makes titanium 100 times more resistant to corrosion. Small amounts of ruthenium are added to platinum and palladium to strengthen them. These alloys are used in jewelry and in electrical contacts that must resist wear.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
100Ru is the product of a rare (and hence very long-lived) nuclear decay process from the double beta decay of 100Mo. A careful measurement of the half-life for this decay, which is 7.1×1018 years, can be used to place an upper limit on the mass of the electron neutrino, which is a neutral and weakly interacting subatomic particle first postulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 [326] M. J. Hornish, L. De Braeckeleer, A. S. Barabash, V. I. Umatov. Phys. Rev. C74, 044314 (2006)..
Ruthenium and molybdenum share many similarities. They both have seven isotopes (96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, and 104 for ruthenium and 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100 for molybdenum), and their isotopes are formed by the same nucleosynthesisp-processes, r-processes, and s-processes, namely, p, r, s and r, s only, s and r, s and r, and r, respectively. The molybdenum and ruthenium isotopic composition of most meteorites lie along a mixing line (Fig. IUPAC.44.1). The ruthenium and molybdenum of silicates in the Earth also lie on this line, which supports the hypothesis that the Earth accreted homogeneously. That is, the feeding zone of the Earth did not change substantially over time as both the bulk of the Earth and the late veneer accreted from material having the same ruthenium-molybdenum isotopic reservoir [327] N. Dauphas, A. M. Davis, B. Marty, L. Reisberg. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.226, 465 (2004)..
Isotopes in Medicine
106Ru plaque brachytherapy has been used for eye preservation and tumor control of uveal (the middle layer of the wall of the eye) melanoma [333] L. Tarmann, W. Wackernagel, A. Avian, C. Mayer, M. Schneider, P. Winkler, G. Langmann. Br. J. Ophthalmol.99, 1644 (2015).. The half-life of 106Ru is 373 days.
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
96Ru is used to produce radioisotopes 94Ru (with a half-life of 52 min) and 95Ru (with half-life of about 1.64 h) via the reactions 96Ru (n, 3n) 94Ru and 96Ru (n, 2n) 95Ru, respectively (Fig. IUPAC.44.2) [334] A. R. Ketring, G. J. Ehrhardt, M. F. Embree, T. T. Tyler, J. A. Gawenis, S. S. Jurisson, H. P. Engelbrecht, C. J. Smith, C. S. Cutler. Alasbimn J.5 (19), (2003)., [335] J. W. Arblaster. Platinum Met. Rev.55, 124 (2011).. 104Ru is used to produce the radioisotope 105Rh (with a half-life of about 35 h) via the reaction 104Ru (p, γ) 105Rh. 105Rh has been used in the treatment of bone pain [334] A. R. Ketring, G. J. Ehrhardt, M. F. Embree, T. T. Tyler, J. A. Gawenis, S. S. Jurisson, H. P. Engelbrecht, C. J. Smith, C. S. Cutler. Alasbimn J.5 (19), (2003)..
Ruthenium chemistry spans many oxidation states, with +2, +3, and +4 common in coordination compounds and oxides. Ruthenium(III) chloride, RuCl₃, is a common precursor for laboratory synthesis, although commercial material may be hydrated or non-stoichiometric. Ruthenium dioxide, RuO₂, is a stable, conductive oxide with rutile-type structure. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, contains ruthenium in the +8 state and is a volatile, powerful oxidant. Organometallic ruthenium compounds include arene complexes and carbene complexes used in catalysis.
See more information at the Ruthenium compound page.
Bulk ruthenium metal is relatively inert, but dusts and powders can be fire or inhalation hazards in industrial handling. Soluble ruthenium salts and many complexes should be treated as toxic unless specifically characterized. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, is especially hazardous because it is volatile, strongly oxidizing, and damaging to tissue. Radioactive isotopes such as ¹⁰⁶Ru present isotope-specific radiation and contamination risks, particularly if dispersed as fine particles or volatile species.
Ruthenium occurs naturally at very low concentrations, mainly associated with platinum-group minerals and sulfide ore systems rather than as a major independent mineral resource. In surface environments it is generally immobile as metal or insoluble oxide, but soluble complexes can behave differently under oxidizing or complexing conditions. Anthropogenic releases are normally small and localized, except in special cases involving mining, refining, industrial catalysts, or nuclear fission products.
Ruthenium is produced as a by-product during refining of platinum-group metal concentrates and, to a lesser extent, nickel-copper sulfide ores. Supply is therefore tied to the mining and refining of other metals rather than to primary ruthenium mining. Demand is modest compared with platinum, palladium, and rhodium, but specialized uses in electronics, catalysts, electrochemical materials, and alloys can require high purity. Recycling occurs from some spent catalysts, electronic materials, and precious-metal alloys, although recovery depends strongly on concentration and process economics.
A member of the platinum group, ruthenium occurs native with other members of the group in ores found in the Ural mountains and in North and South America. It is also found along with other platinum metals in small but commercial quantities in pentlandite in the Sudbury, Ontario nickel-mining region, and in the pyroxinite deposits of South Africa.
Ruthenium is a heavy element formed mainly by neutron-capture nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars. It is far less abundant cosmically than iron-group elements, but it is present in meteorites and planetary materials at trace levels. Its association with other platinum-group elements reflects both nucleosynthetic origin and geochemical partitioning into metal-rich and sulfide-rich phases.
- Ruthenium was named from Ruthenia, a historical Latin name associated with parts of Eastern Europe.
- It is one of the least abundant stable platinum-group metals in Earth’s crust.
- Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, is volatile despite being an oxide of a heavy metal.
- The metal can form a passive oxide surface that contributes to corrosion resistance.
- Some commercial RuCl₃ is not a simple anhydrous compound but a mixture of hydrated chloride species.
- Ruthenium catalysts are central to many well-known olefin metathesis reactions.
画像
性質
物理的性質
- 原子半径（経験値）
- 130 pm 全元素の原子半径（経験値）を比較 →
- 共有結合半径
- 146 pm 全元素の共有結合半径を比較 →
- ファンデルワールス半径
- 207 pm 全元素のファンデルワールス半径を比較 →
- 金属半径
- 125 pm 全元素の金属半径を比較 →
- 密度
- 1.21 × 104 kg/m³ 全元素の密度を比較 →
- モル体積
- 0.0083 L/mol
- 標準温度・圧力（STP）での相
- 固体 全元素の標準温度・圧力（STP）での相を比較 →
- 融点
- 2333.85 °C 全元素の融点を比較 →
- 沸点
- 4149.85 °C 全元素の沸点を比較 →
- 熱伝導率
- 117 W/(m·K) 全元素の熱伝導率を比較 →
- 比熱容量
- 0.238 J/(g·K) 全元素の比熱容量を比較 →
- モル熱容量
- 24.06 J/(mol·K) 全元素のモル熱容量を比較 →
- 結晶構造
- 六方最密充填構造 全元素の結晶構造を比較 →
化学的性質
- 電気陰性度（Pauling）
- 2.2 全元素の電気陰性度（Pauling）を比較 →
- 電気陰性度（Allen）
- 1.54
- 電子親和力
- 1.05 eV
- 第1イオン化エネルギー
- 7.3605 eV 全元素の第1イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第2イオン化エネルギー
- 16.760058 eV 全元素の第2イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第3イオン化エネルギー
- 28.470098 eV 全元素の第3イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第4イオン化エネルギー
- 45.000155 eV 全元素の第4イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第5イオン化エネルギー
- 59.000203 eV 全元素の第5イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 酸化数
- −4, −2, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8 全元素の酸化数を比較 →
- 価電子
- 8 全元素の価電子を比較 →
- 電子配置
- [Kr] 5s1 4d7
熱力学的性質
- 融解熱
- 0.24874333 eV 全元素の融解熱を比較 →
- 蒸発熱
- 6.166762 eV 全元素の蒸発熱を比較 →
- 昇華熱
- 6.736798 eV
- 原子化熱
- 6.736798 eV
- 原子化エンタルピー
- 6.743017 eV
原子核
- 陽子数
- 44 全元素の陽子数を比較 →
- 中性子数
- 58 全元素の中性子数を比較 →
- 既知の同位体
- 41 全元素の既知の同位体を比較 →
- 安定同位体
- 6 全元素の安定同位体を比較 →
- 最も安定な同位体
- Ru-102
- 発見年
- 1828
存在度
- 存在度（地殻）
- 0.001 mg/kg 全元素の存在度（地殻）を比較 →
- 存在度（海洋）
- 7 × 10−7 mg/L 全元素の存在度（海洋）を比較 →
結晶構造
- 格子定数a
- 270 pm
電子構造
- 各電子殻の電子数
- 2, 8, 18, 15, 1 全元素の各電子殻の電子数を比較 →
識別子
- CAS登録番号
- 7440-18-8 全元素のCAS登録番号を比較 →
- 項記号
- 5F5
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ru
- InChI Key
- KJTLSVCANCCWHF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
電子配置 測定値
Ru: 4d⁷ 5s¹[Kr] 4d⁷ 5s¹1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d⁷ 5s¹原子モデル
同位体によって中性子数、質量、安定性は変わりますが、中性原子の電子配置は変わりません。
模式的な原子モデルです。実際の縮尺とは異なります。
原子の指紋
発光／吸収スペクトル
同位体分布
| 質量数 | 原子質量（u） | 天然存在比 | 半減期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 98 安定 | 97.9052868 ± 0.0000069 | 1.8700% | 安定 |
| 99 安定 | 98.9059341 ± 0.0000011 | 12.7600% | 安定 |
| 100 安定 | 99.9042143 ± 0.0000011 | 12.6000% | 安定 |
| 101 安定 | 100.9055769 ± 0.0000012 | 17.0600% | 安定 |
| 102 安定 | 101.9043441 ± 0.0000012 | 31.5500% | 安定 |
| 104 安定 | 103.9054275 ± 0.0000028 | 18.6200% | 安定 |
相／状態
理由: 融点（2333.85 °C）より2308.8 °C低い
模式図、実際の縮尺とは異なります
相転移点
相転移エネルギー
融点で1 molを融解させるのに必要なエネルギー
沸点で1 molを蒸発させるのに必要なエネルギー
昇華点で1 molを昇華させるのに必要なエネルギー
密度
標準条件下
標準条件下
原子スペクトル
全44件中10件を表示しています。 イオンの電荷の昇順で並べています。
スペクトル線データの収録状況 ?
| イオン | 電荷 | スペクトル線の総数 | 遷移確率 | 準位の表記 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ru I | 0 | 541 | 11 | 519 |
| Ru II | +1 | 59 | 8 | 59 |
| Ru III | +2 | 93 | 0 | 0 |
準位データの収録状況 ?
| イオン | 電荷 | 準位 |
|---|---|---|
| Ru I | 0 | 329 |
| Ru II | +1 | 235 |
| Ru III | +2 | 26 |
| Ru IV | +3 | 2 |
| Ru V | +4 | 2 |
| Ru VI | +5 | 2 |
| Ru VII | +6 | 2 |
| Ru VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ru IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ru X | +9 | 2 |
イオン半径
| 電荷 | 配位 | スピン | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +3 | 6 | データなし | 68 pm |
| +4 | 6 | データなし | 62 pm |
| +5 | 6 | データなし | 56.49999999999999 pm |
| +7 | 4 | データなし | 38 pm |
| +8 | 4 | データなし | 36 pm |
化合物
同位体 (6)
| 質量数 | 原子質量（u） | 天然存在比 | 半減期 | 崩壊形式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 98 安定 | 97.9052868 ± 0.0000069 | 1.8700% ± 0.0300% | 安定 | stable | |
| 99 安定 | 98.9059341 ± 0.0000011 | 12.7600% ± 0.1400% | 安定 | stable | |
| 100 安定 | 99.9042143 ± 0.0000011 | 12.6000% ± 0.0700% | 安定 | stable | |
| 101 安定 | 100.9055769 ± 0.0000012 | 17.0600% ± 0.0200% | 安定 | stable | |
| 102 安定 | 101.9043441 ± 0.0000012 | 31.5500% ± 0.1400% | 安定 | stable | |
| 104 安定 | 103.9054275 ± 0.0000028 | 18.6200% ± 0.2700% | 安定 | stable |
詳細な性質
共有結合半径（詳細）
- 共有結合半径（Pyykkö）
- 125 pm
- 共有結合半径（Pyykkö、二重結合）
- 114 pm
- 共有結合半径（Pyykkö、三重結合）
- 103 pm
ファンデルワールス半径
- Batsanov
- 205 pm
- Alvarez
- 246 pm
- UFF
- 296.3 pm
- MM3
- 234 pm
原子半径と金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 237 pm
- 金属半径（C12）
- 134 pm
番号付けの尺度
- Mendeleev
- 60
- Pettifor
- 63
- Glawe
- 61
電気陰性度の尺度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 4
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 3
分極率と分散
- 双極子分極率
- 72 a.u.
- 双極子分極率（不確かさ）
- 10 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 809 Ha·Bohr6
化学親和力
- プロトン親和力
- 774 kJ/mol
- 気相塩基性
- 751.4 kJ/mol
ミーデマパラメータ
- ミーデマモル体積
- 8.2 cm3/mol
- ミーデマ電子密度
- 6
供給リスクと経済性
- 生産集中度
- 60
- 相対供給リスク
- 8
- 埋蔵量の分布
- 95
- 政治的安定性（最大生産国）
- 44
- 政治的安定性（最大埋蔵国）
- 44
相転移と同素体
| 融点 | 2606.15 K |
| 沸点 | 4420.15 K |
酸化数の分類
専門参考データ
遮蔽定数 (10)
| n | 軌道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.9077 |
| 2 | p | 4.0492 |
| 2 | s | 11.6202 |
| 3 | d | 14.6411 |
| 3 | p | 16.7789 |
| 3 | s | 16.3988 |
| 4 | d | 31.1872 |
| 4 | p | 27.5652 |
| 4 | s | 26.344 |
| 5 | s | 37.5155 |
結晶半径の詳細 (5)
| 電荷 | CN | スピン | rcrystal (pm) | 由来 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | VI | 82 | ||
| 4 | VI | 76 | from r^3 vs V plots, from metallic oxides, | |
| 5 | VI | 70.5 | estimated, from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 7 | IV | 52 | ||
| 8 | IV | 50 |
同位体の崩壊形式 (62)
| 同位体 | モード | 強度 |
|---|---|---|
| 85 | B+ | — |
| 85 | B+p | — |
| 85 | p | — |
| 86 | B+ | — |
| 86 | B+p | — |
| 87 | B+ | — |
| 87 | B+p | — |
| 88 | B+ | 100% |
| 88 | B+p | 3.6% |
| 89 | B+ | 100% |
X線散乱因子 (615)
| エネルギー (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 1.51919 |
| 10.1617 | — | 1.51438 |
| 10.3261 | — | 1.51486 |
| 10.4931 | — | 1.54335 |
| 10.6628 | — | 1.57238 |
| 10.8353 | — | 1.60195 |
| 11.0105 | — | 1.63207 |
| 11.1886 | — | 1.66277 |
| 11.3696 | — | 1.7032 |
| 11.5535 | — | 1.79614 |
追加データ
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1×10-3 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Ruthenium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele044.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
7×10-7 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Ruthenium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele044.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
A member of the platinum group, ruthenium occurs native with other members of the group in ores found in the Ural mountains and in North and South America. It is also found along with other platinum metals in small but commercial quantities in pentlandite in the Sudbury, Ontario nickel-mining region, and in the pyroxinite deposits of South Africa.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Ruthenium https://periodic.lanl.gov/44.shtml
Production
Production of this element (from raw materials or other compounds containing the element).
The metal is isolated commercially by a complex chemical process, the final stage of which is the hydrogen reduction of ammonium ruthenium chloride, which yields a powder. The powder is consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques or by argon-arc welding.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Ruthenium https://periodic.lanl.gov/44.shtml
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Ruthenium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.