Ytterbium (Yb)
lanthanideSolid
Standard Atomic Weight
173.054 uElectron configuration
[Xe] 6s2 4f14Melting point
818.85 °CBoiling point
1195.85 °CDensity
6900 kg/m³Oxidation states
0, +1, +2, +3Electronegativity (Pauling)
N/AIonization energy (1st)
6.25416 eVDiscovery year
1878Atomic radius
175 pmDetails
Ytterbium is a soft, silvery lanthanide metal with atomic number 70. It is one of the heavier rare-earth elements and is chemically notable for the relative stability of the divalent Yb²⁺ state as well as the usual trivalent Yb³⁺ state. This accessible redox pair gives ytterbium a larger and more variable metallic radius than neighboring lanthanides and is important in its organometallic and solid-state chemistry. Natural ytterbium is a mixture of several stable isotopes.
Ytterbium has a bright silvery luster, is soft, malleable, and quite ductile. Even though the element is fairly stable, it should be kept in closed containers to protect it from air and moisture. Ytterbium is readily attacked and dissolved by dilute and concentrated mineral acids and reacts slowly with water. Ytterbium has three allotropic forms with transformation points at -13°C and 795°C: The beta form is a room-temperature, face-centered, cubic modification, while the high-temperature gamma form is a body-centered cubic form. Another body-centered cubic phase has recently been found to be stable at high pressures at room temperatures. The beta form ordinarily has metallic-type conductivity, but becomes a semiconductor when the pressure is increased about 16,000 atm. The electrical resistance increases tenfold as the pressure is increased to 39,000 atm and drops to about 10% of its standard temperature-pressure resistivity at a pressure of 40,000 atm. Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes. Seven other unstable isotopes are known.
The name derives from the Swedish village of Ytterby where the mineral ytterbite (the source of ytterbium) was originally found. It was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1878 in erbium nitrate from gadolinite (ytterbite renamed).
The mineral gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y)2FeBe2Si2O10), discovered in a quarry near the town of Ytterby, Sweden, has been the source of a great number of rare earth elements. In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander, a Swedish chemist, was able to separate gadolinite into three materials, which he named yttria, erbia and terbia. As might be expected considering the similarities between their names and properties, scientists soon confused erbia and terbia and, by 1877, had reversed their names. What Mosander called erbia is now called terbia and visa versa. In 1878 Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, a Swiss chemist, discovered that erbia was itself consisted of two components. One component was named ytterbia by Marignac while the other component retained the name erbia. Marignac believed that ytterbia was a compound of a new element, which he named ytterbium. Other chemists produced and experimented with ytterbium in an attempt to determine some of it's properties. Unfortunately, different scientists obtained different results from the same experiments. While some scientists believed that these inconsistent results were caused by poor procedures or faulty equipment, Georges Urbain, a French chemist, believed that ytterbium wasn't an element at all, but a mixture of two elements. In 1907, Urbain was able to separate ytterbium into two elements. Urbain named one of the elements neoytterbium (new ytterbium) and the other element lutecium. Chemists eventually changed the name neoytterbium back to ytterbium and changed the spelling of lutecium to lutetium. Due to his original belief of the composition of ytterbia, Marignac is credited with the discovery of ytterbium. Today, ytterbium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements.
Named after Ytterby, a village in Sweden. Marignac in 1878 discovered a new component, which he called ytterbia, in the earth then known as erbia. In 1907, Urbain separated ytterbia into two components, which he called neoytterbia and lutecia. The elements in these earths are now known as ytterbium and lutetium, respectively. These elements are identical with aldebaranium and cassiopeium, discovered independently and at about the same time by von Welsbach.
Pure ytterbium is a lustrous, silvery-white metal when freshly cut. It is soft and ductile, but it tarnishes in air and should be protected from moisture and oxygen for long-term storage. The metal exists in several solid allotropes near ordinary temperatures and pressures.
Ytterbium has specialized rather than large-volume uses. Yb³⁺-doped crystals, glasses, and fibers are important laser and optical amplifier media, especially for efficient solid-state and fiber lasers near the one-micrometre region. Ytterbium compounds are used in some infrared phosphors and scintillator-related materials. The isotope ¹⁶⁹Yb has been used as a compact gamma-ray source in industrial radiography and related inspection work. Metallic ytterbium and ytterbium reagents are also used in research chemistry, including reductive and organometallic reactions.
Ytterbium has few uses. It can be alloyed with stainless steel to improve some of its mechanical properties and used as a doping agent in fiber optic cable where it can be used as an amplifier. One of ytterbium's isotopes is being considered as a radiation source for portable X-ray machines.
Ytterbium metal has possible use in improving the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of stainless steel. One isotope is reported to have been used as a radiation source substitute for a portable X-ray machine where electricity is unavailable. Few other uses have been found.
Isotopes in Industry
169Yb (with a half-life of 32 days) emits gamma rays and can be used to create a radiographic image of an object without the use of electricity. A capsule containing 169Yb is placed on one side of the object being screened and photographic film is placed on the other. The result will indicate flaws in metal casting or welded joints [491] M. Senthilingam, L. Natrajan, B. Clegg. Chemistry in its Element-Ytterbium, Royal Society of Chemistry (2017), Feb. 25; http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/70/ytterbium., [492] H. Yamabayashi. Radioisotopes43, 296 (1994).. Gamma cameras use 169Yb as a radiation source (Fig. IUPAC.70.1). Gamma cameras are used to locate sealed radioactive sources and hot spots in historical waste. Images of the gamma ray intensity are made and then the 2-D distribution is superimposed on a picture or video image [493] International Atomic Energy Agency. Locating and Characterizing Disused Sealed Radioactive Sources in Historical Waste, p. 23. Vienna (2008)., [494] D. Vnuk. “Acoustic techniques for localizing holdup”, in 37th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management..
171Yb has been used for making an atomic clock by making use of a ytterbium optical lattice (formed by the interference of counter-propagating laser beams) (Fig. IUPAC.70.2) [495] T. H. Yoon, C. Y. Park. Laser Phys.15, 1087 (2005)., [496] Physics Laboratory, Time & Frequency Division. Yb Lattice Clock, National Institute of Standards and Technology (2017), Feb. 25; https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/yb-lattice-clock., [497] National Institute of Standards and Technology. Experimental Atomic Clock Uses Ytterbium ‘Pancakes’, National Institute of Standards and Technology (2017), Feb. 25; https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-03/nios-eac030606.php..
Isotopes in Medicine
In the treatment of prostate cancer with brachytherapy seed implants, 169Yb has been suggested as an alternative to using 125I and 103Pd [498] International Atomic Energy Agency. Production Techniques and Quality Control of Sealed Radioactive Sources of Palladium-103, Iodine-125, Iridium-192 and Ytterbium-169, IAEA-TECDOC-1512, International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna (2006)., [499] G. R. Lazarescu, J. J. Battista. Phys. Med. Biol.42, 1727 (1997)..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
The radioisotope 169Yb is manufactured using 168Yb via the reaction 168Yb (n, γ) 169Yb.
Ytterbium chemistry is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, with the +2 state unusually accessible for a lanthanide. The common sesquioxide ytterbium(III) oxide, Yb₂O₃, is a stable white solid used as a starting material for many salts and ceramics. Ytterbium(III) chloride, YbCl₃, and ytterbium(III) nitrate, Yb(NO₃)₃, form hydrated salts and coordination complexes. Divalent ytterbium(II) iodide, YbI₂, is a strong reducing reagent, while ytterbium(II) bromide, YbBr₂, illustrates the stability of Yb²⁺ in halides. Organoytterbium compounds are moisture-sensitive and mainly of research interest.
See more information at the Ytterbium compound page.
Massive ytterbium metal has low acute chemical toxicity by comparison with many heavy metals, but fine powder can present fire and dust hazards. Soluble ytterbium salts should be handled as potentially harmful irritants because rare-earth ions can affect biological processes at sufficient concentration. Radioactive ¹⁶⁹Yb and other activated isotopes require radiation controls appropriate to the isotope and source form. Moisture-sensitive ytterbium reagents may release heat or corrosive by-products on contact with water.
Ytterbium has a low acute toxic rating.
Ytterbium occurs naturally in rare-earth minerals such as monazite and xenotime, usually with other heavy lanthanides rather than as a separate mineral species. In soils and waters it is expected to occur mainly as Yb³⁺ complexes or adsorbed to mineral and organic surfaces. It has no known essential biological role. Environmental releases are generally associated with rare-earth mining, processing residues, polishing and electronic wastes, or laboratory disposal, and its mobility depends strongly on acidity and complexing ligands.
Ytterbium is recovered as a minor component during the processing of rare-earth ores, especially ion-adsorption clays and heavy-rare-earth concentrates, and is separated by solvent extraction or ion-exchange methods. It is not mined for itself, and supply is tied to broader rare-earth production and separation capacity. Demand is modest but technically important, led by laser materials, specialty phosphors, research reagents, and isotope applications. High-purity ytterbium metal and isotopically enriched materials are specialty products. Recycling is limited because most uses disperse small quantities in complex optical or electronic materials.
Ytterbium occurs along with other rare earths in a number of rare minerals. It is commercially recovered principally from monazite sand, which contains about 0.03%. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in recent years have greatly simplified the separation of the rare earths from one another.
Ytterbium is a heavy element made mainly by neutron-capture nucleosynthesis, with contributions from both slow and rapid neutron-capture processes before incorporation into later generations of stars and planets. It is far less abundant cosmically than iron-group or light elements. In the solar system it is a refractory lithophile element and is concentrated with other rare earths in planetary crustal materials rather than in metallic cores or volatile phases.
- Ytterbium was named from Ytterby, Sweden, the same locality that inspired several rare-earth element names.
- Its divalent metal compounds often resemble alkaline-earth chemistry more than typical lanthanide chemistry.
- Natural ytterbium contains seven stable isotopes, an unusually large number for a rare-earth element.
- Ytterbium fiber lasers are valued partly because Yb³⁺ has a simple electronic structure that reduces unwanted absorption
- Ytterbium metal has a comparatively low density for a heavy lanthanide because of its divalent metallic bonding.
Images
Properties
Physical
- Atomic radius (empirical)
- 175 pm Compare Atomic radius (empirical) of all elements →
- Covalent radius
- 187 pm Compare Covalent radius of all elements →
- Van der Waals radius
- 242 pm Compare Van der Waals radius of all elements →
- Density
- 6900 kg/m³ Compare Density of all elements →
- Molar volume
- 0.0248 L/mol
- Phase at STP
- Solid Compare Phase at STP of all elements →
- Melting point
- 818.85 °C Compare Melting point of all elements →
- Boiling point
- 1195.85 °C Compare Boiling point of all elements →
- Specific heat capacity
- 0.155 J/(g·K) Compare Specific heat capacity of all elements →
- Molar heat capacity
- 26.74 J/(mol·K) Compare Molar heat capacity of all elements →
- Crystal structure
- Face-centered cubic Compare Crystal structure of all elements →
Chemical
- Electron affinity
- -0.02 eV (negative value — the atom is not predicted to bind an extra electron)
- Ionization energy (1st)
- 6.25416 eV Compare Ionization energy (1st) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (2nd)
- 12.179227 eV Compare Ionization energy (2nd) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (3rd)
- 25.053086 eV Compare Ionization energy (3rd) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (4th)
- 43.61015 eV Compare Ionization energy (4th) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (5th)
- 65.600226 eV Compare Ionization energy (5th) of all elements →
- Oxidation states
- 0, +1, +2, +3 Compare Oxidation states of all elements →
- Valence electrons
- 3 Compare Valence electrons of all elements →
- Electron configuration
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14
Thermodynamic
- Heat of fusion
- 0.07980515 eV Compare Heat of fusion of all elements →
- Heat of vaporization
- 1.336995 eV Compare Heat of vaporization of all elements →
- Heat of sublimation
- 1.575374 eV
- Heat of atomization
- 1.575374 eV
- Atomization enthalpy
- 1.612686 eV
Nuclear
- Protons
- 70 Compare Protons of all elements →
- Neutrons
- 104 Compare Neutrons of all elements →
- Known isotopes
- 38 Compare Known isotopes of all elements →
- Stable isotopes
- 5 Compare Stable isotopes of all elements →
- Most stable isotope
- Yb-174
- Discovery year
- 1878
Abundance
- Abundance (Earth's crust)
- 3.2 mg/kg Compare Abundance (Earth's crust) of all elements →
- Abundance (ocean)
- 8.2 × 10−7 mg/L Compare Abundance (ocean) of all elements →
Crystal Structure
- Lattice constant a
- 549 pm
Electronic Structure
- Electrons per shell
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2 Compare Electrons per shell of all elements →
Identifiers
- CAS number
- 7440-64-4 Compare CAS number of all elements →
- Term symbol
- 1S0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Yb
- InChI Key
- NAWDYIZEMPQZHO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Electron Configuration Measured
Yb: 4f¹⁴ 6s²[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 6s²Atomic model
Isotopes change neutron count, mass, and stability — not the electron configuration of a neutral atom.
Schematic atomic model, not to scale.
Atomic Fingerprint
Emission / Absorption Spectrum
Isotope Distribution
| Mass number | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life |
|---|---|---|---|
| 170 Stable | 169.9347664 ± 0.0000022 | 2.9820% | Stable |
| 171 Stable | 170.9363302 ± 0.0000022 | 14.0900% | Stable |
| 172 Stable | 171.9363859 ± 0.0000022 | 21.6800% | Stable |
| 173 Stable | 172.9382151 ± 0.0000022 | 16.1030% | Stable |
| 174 Stable | 173.9388664 ± 0.0000022 | 32.0260% | Stable |
Phase / State
Reason: 793.9 °C below melting point (818.85 °C)
Schematic, not to scale
Phase transition points
Transition energies
Energy required to melt 1 mol at melting point
Energy required to vaporize 1 mol at boiling point
Energy required to sublime 1 mol at sublimation point
Density
At standard conditions
At standard conditions
Atomic Spectra
Showing 10 of 70. Sorted by ion charge (ascending).
Lines Holdings ?
| Ion | Charge | Total lines | Transition probabilities | Level designations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yb I | 0 | 99 | 5 | 10 |
| Yb II | +1 | 327 | 10 | 10 |
| Yb III | +2 | 272 | 0 | 0 |
| Yb IV | +3 | 92 | 0 | 0 |
Levels Holdings ?
| Ion | Charge | Levels |
|---|---|---|
| Yb I | 0 | 250 |
| Yb II | +1 | 349 |
| Yb III | +2 | 55 |
| Yb IV | +3 | 121 |
| Yb V | +4 | 2 |
| Yb VI | +5 | 2 |
| Yb VII | +6 | 2 |
| Yb VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Yb IX | +8 | 2 |
| Yb X | +9 | 2 |
Ionic Radii
| Charge | Coordination | Spin | Radius |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | N/A | 102 pm |
| +2 | 7 | N/A | 108 pm |
| +2 | 8 | N/A | 113.99999999999999 pm |
| +3 | 6 | N/A | 86.8 pm |
| +3 | 7 | N/A | 92.5 pm |
| +3 | 8 | N/A | 98.5 pm |
| +3 | 9 | N/A | 104.2 pm |
Compounds
Isotopes (5)
| Mass number | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life | Decay mode | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 170 Stable | 169.9347664 ± 0.0000022 | 2.9820% ± 0.0390% | Stable | stable | |
| 171 Stable | 170.9363302 ± 0.0000022 | 14.0900% ± 0.1400% | Stable | stable | |
| 172 Stable | 171.9363859 ± 0.0000022 | 21.6800% ± 0.1300% | Stable | stable | |
| 173 Stable | 172.9382151 ± 0.0000022 | 16.1030% ± 0.0630% | Stable | stable | |
| 174 Stable | 173.9388664 ± 0.0000022 | 32.0260% ± 0.0800% | Stable | stable |
Extended Properties
Covalent Radii (Extended)
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö)
- 170 pm
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö, double)
- 129 pm
Van der Waals Radii
- Alvarez
- 280 pm
- UFF
- 335.5 pm
- MM3
- 279 pm
Atomic & Metallic Radii
- Atomic radius (Rahm)
- 277 pm
Numbering Scales
- Mendeleev
- 39
- Pettifor
- 17
- Glawe
- 18
Electronegativity Scales
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 3
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 3
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 2
Polarizability & Dispersion
- Dipole polarizability
- 139 a.u.
- Dipole polarizability (unc.)
- 6 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 1910 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema Parameters
- Miedema molar volume
- 17.97 cm3/mol
- Miedema electron density
- 2
Supply Risk & Economics
- Production concentration
- 97
- Relative supply risk
- 10
- Reserve distribution
- 50
- Political stability (top producer)
- 24
- Political stability (top reserve)
- 24
Phase Transitions & Allotropes
| Melting point | 1097.15 K |
| Boiling point | 1469.15 K |
Oxidation State Categories
Advanced Reference Data
Screening Constants (13)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.3611 |
| 2 | p | 4.3716 |
| 2 | s | 18.306 |
| 3 | d | 13.6033 |
| 3 | p | 20.6635 |
| 3 | s | 21.2398 |
| 4 | d | 36.4104 |
| 4 | f | 40.568 |
| 4 | p | 33.598 |
| 4 | s | 32.4824 |
Crystal Radii Detail (7)
| Charge | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Origin |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 116 | ||
| 2 | VII | 122 | estimated, | |
| 2 | VIII | 128 | ||
| 3 | VI | 100.8 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VII | 106.5 | estimated, | |
| 3 | VIII | 112.5 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | IX | 118.2 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
Isotope Decay Modes (45)
| Isotope | Mode | Intensity |
|---|---|---|
| 148 | B+ | — |
| 148 | B+p | — |
| 149 | B+ | 100% |
| 149 | B+p | 100% |
| 150 | B+ | — |
| 151 | B+ | 100% |
| 151 | B+p | — |
| 152 | B+ | 100% |
| 153 | B+ | — |
| 153 | A | — |
X‑ray Scattering Factors (514)
| Energy (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0.21734 |
| 10.1617 | — | 0.21864 |
| 10.3261 | — | 0.21994 |
| 10.4931 | — | 0.22125 |
| 10.6628 | — | 0.22256 |
| 10.8353 | — | 0.22389 |
| 11.0106 | — | 0.22522 |
| 11.1886 | — | 0.22656 |
| 11.3696 | — | 0.22886 |
| 11.5535 | — | 0.23378 |
Additional Data
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
3.2 milligrams per kilogram
References (1)
- [5] Ytterbium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele070.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
8.2×10-7 milligrams per liter
References (1)
- [5] Ytterbium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele070.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
Ytterbium occurs along with other rare earths in a number of rare minerals. It is commercially recovered principally from monazite sand, which contains about 0.03%. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in recent years have greatly simplified the separation of the rare earths from one another.
References (1)
- [6] Ytterbium https://periodic.lanl.gov/70.shtml
Production
Production of this element (from raw materials or other compounds containing the element).
The element was first prepared by Klemm and Bonner in 1937 by reducing ytterbium trichloride with potassium. Their metal was mixed, however, with KCl. Daane, Dennison, and Spedding prepared a much purer from in 1953 from which the chemical and physical properties of the element could be determined.
References (1)
- [6] Ytterbium https://periodic.lanl.gov/70.shtml
References
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
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The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Ytterbium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.