Gadolinium (Gd)
lanthanideSolid
Standard Atomic Weight
157.25 uElectron configuration
[Xe] 6s2 4f7 5d1Melting point
1312.85 °CBoiling point
3272.85 °CDensity
7900 kg/m³Oxidation states
0, +1, +2, +3Electronegativity (Pauling)
1.2Ionization energy (1st)
6.1498 eVDiscovery year
1886Atomic radius
180 pmDetails
Gadolinium is a silvery lanthanide metal and one of the middle rare-earth elements. Its chemistry is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, but its seven unpaired 4f electrons give it unusually strong magnetic behavior for a rare-earth element. Natural gadolinium is a mixture of stable isotopes, with ¹⁵²Gd very long-lived and weakly radioactive. The element is technologically important in magnetic materials, neutron absorption, phosphors, and medical contrast agents.
As with other related rare-earth metals, gadolinium is silvery white, has a metallic luster, and is malleable and ductile. At room temperature, gadolinium crystallizes in the hexagonal, close-packed alpha form. Upon heating to 1235°C, alpha gadolinium transforms into the beta form, which has a body-centered cubic structure.
The metal is relatively stable in dry air, but tarnishes in moist air and forms a loosely adhering oxide film which falls off and exposes more surface to oxidation. The metal reacts slowly with water and is soluble in dilute acid.
Gadolinium has the highest thermal neutron capture cross-section of any known element (49,000 barns).
The name derives from the mineral gadolinite, in which it was found, and that had been named for the Finnish rare earth chemist Johan Gadolin. Gadolinium was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1886, who produced a white oxide in a samarskite mineral. In 1886, the French chemist Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran gave the name gadolinium.
Spectroscopic evidence for the existence of gadolinium was first observed by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in the minerals didymia and gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y)2FeBe2Si2O10) in 1880. Today, gadolinium is primarily obtained from the minerals monazite ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4) and bastnasite ((Ce,La,Y)CO3F).
From gadolinite, a mineral named for Gadolin, a Finnish chemist. The rare earth metal is obtained from the mineral gadolinite. Gadolinia, the oxide of gadolinium, was separated by Marignac in 1880 and Lecoq de Boisbaudran independently isolated it from Mosander's yttria in 1886.
Pure gadolinium is a soft, bright, silvery-white metal when freshly cut. It tarnishes in air and can form a darker oxide surface. At ordinary pressure it is ferromagnetic below about 20 °C, close enough to room temperature that modest temperature changes strongly affect its magnetism.
Gadolinium is used where high magnetic moment or high neutron-capture ability is valuable. Gadolinium compounds are used in some magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents, where chelation is essential to control toxicity. Gadolinium oxide is used in phosphors and scintillators, and gadolinium gallium garnet has served as a substrate and optical material. Gadolinium is also used in control materials and burnable neutron absorbers in some nuclear reactors, often as gadolinium oxide mixed into fuel.
Gadolinium has the greatest ability to capture thermal neutrons of all known elements and can be used as control rods for nuclear reactors. Unfortunately, the two isotopes best suited for neutron capture, gadolinium-155 and gadolinium-157, are present in gadolinium in small amounts. As a result, gadolinium control rods quickly lose their effectiveness.
Gadolinium can be combined with yttrium to form garnets that have applications in microwave technology. Gadolinium can be alloyed with iron, chromium and other metals to improve their workability and their resistance to high temperatures and oxidation. Gadolinium compounds are used to make phosphors for color televisions.
Gadolinium yttrium garnets are used in microwave applications and gadolinium compounds are used as phosphors in color television sets.
The metal has unusual superconductive properties. As little as 1 percent gadolinium improves the workability and resistance of iron, chromium, and related alloys to high temperatures and oxidation.
Gadolinium ethyl sulfate has extremely low noise characteristics and may find use in duplicating the performance of amplifiers, such as the maser.
The metal is ferromagnetic. Gadolinium is unique for its high magnetic movement and for its special Curie temperature (above which ferromagnetism vanishes) lying just at room temperature, meaning it could be used as a magnetic component that can sense hot and cold.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
The lunar surface is continuously exposed to cosmic radiation, and the interaction between planetary material and cosmic rays produces secondary neutrons. The neutron flux can be investigated using the large neutron capture cross sections of 149Sm, 155Gd, and 157Gd. For example, 157Gd will absorb neutrons and be converted to 158Gd. On a cross plot of n(158Gd)/n(160Gd) isotope-amount ratio and n(157Gd)/n(160Gd) isotope-amount ratio (Fig. IUPAC.64.1), values will move from the lower right corner to the upper left corner of the cross plot with increasing time or increasing flux.
Isotopes in Medicine
The addition of 157Gd to Neutron Capture Therapy (NCT) has been shown to be more effective at targeting tumors than the previous method of using only 10B for the treatment (Fig. IUPAC.64.2) [453] C. N. Culbertson, T. Jevremovic. Phys. Med. Biol.48, 3943 (2003).. 153Gd (with a half-life of 0.66 years) is used in the production of photon line sources (an optical source that emits one or more spectrally narrow lines as opposed to a continuous spectrum) to manufacture 153Gd line sources [454] V. M. Lebedev, J. N. Gordeev, E. A. Karelin, V. D. Gavrilov. Appl. Radiat. Isot.53, 829 (2000).. 153Gd is also used as a photon source of the dual-photon absorptiometry (DPA) technique that is used to measure bone mineral content (BMC). Studies for this technique have been conducted in horses and humans [455] A. Moure, P. Reichmann, H. R. Gamba. Phys. Med. Biol.48, 3851 (2003)., [456] P. Tothill, M. A. Smith, D. Sutton. Br. J. Radiol.56, 829 (1983)..
Gadolinium chemistry is mainly that of Gd³⁺ salts and oxides. Gadolinium(III) oxide, Gd₂O₃, is a stable refractory oxide and a common starting material. Gadolinium(III) chloride, GdCl₃, and gadolinium(III) nitrate, Gd(NO₃)₃, form hydrated salts and coordination complexes. Gadolinium(III) sulfate, Gd₂(SO₄)₃, and many organic chelates are also important. The +2 state is known in specialized solid-state and organometallic chemistry, but it is not the normal aqueous form.
See more information at the Gadolinium compound page.
Metallic gadolinium dust can burn and should be treated as a reactive metal powder. Soluble gadolinium salts are toxic at sufficient dose, largely because free Gd³⁺ can interfere with calcium-dependent biological processes. Medical contrast agents use tightly bound complexes, but release or retention of gadolinium is a recognized safety concern, especially in vulnerable patients. Stable gadolinium isotopes do not present a radiological hazard of practical importance.
Gadolinium occurs in nature dispersed with other rare-earth elements in minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite. It is not known to have an essential biological role. In soils and waters it tends to bind strongly to minerals, phosphates, carbonates, and organic matter rather than remain as a simple free ion. Anthropogenic gadolinium from contrast agents can pass through wastewater systems and has been detected as anomalous rare-earth patterns in some surface waters.
Gadolinium is not mined as a primary metal. It is recovered during processing of rare-earth ores, with separation from chemically similar lanthanides by solvent extraction or ion-exchange methods. Supply depends on the rare-earth industry as a whole and on the economics of separating mixed concentrates into individual oxides. Demand is smaller than for neodymium or cerium but important in medical imaging, nuclear technology, phosphors, and specialty magnetic materials. Recycling is limited and is most practical from concentrated industrial scrap rather than diffuse medical releases.
Gadolinium is found in several other minerals, including monazite and bastnasite, both of which are commercially important. With the development of ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques, the availability and prices of gadolinium and the other rare-earth metals have greatly improved. The metal can be prepared by the reduction of the anhydrous fluoride with metallic calcium.
Gadolinium is a heavy element made mainly by neutron-capture processes in earlier generations of stars. Its stable isotopes include products associated with both slow and rapid neutron capture. In the Solar System it is far less abundant than iron or the light elements, but it follows the general rare-earth pattern in meteorites and planetary materials.
- Natural gadolinium has one of the highest thermal-neutron absorption capacities among stable-element mixtures.
- The element is named through gadolinite, a mineral ultimately named for Johan Gadolin.
- Gadolinium becomes ferromagnetic only just below ordinary room temperature.
- Free Gd³⁺ is far more hazardous than gadolinium held in approved chelating ligands.
- Gadolinium anomalies in rivers can trace releases from medical imaging agents.
Images
Properties
Physical
- Atomic radius (empirical)
- 180 pm Compare Atomic radius (empirical) of all elements →
- Covalent radius
- 196 pm Compare Covalent radius of all elements →
- Van der Waals radius
- 237 pm Compare Van der Waals radius of all elements →
- Density
- 7900 kg/m³ Compare Density of all elements →
- Molar volume
- 0.0199 L/mol
- Phase at STP
- Solid Compare Phase at STP of all elements →
- Melting point
- 1312.85 °C Compare Melting point of all elements →
- Boiling point
- 3272.85 °C Compare Boiling point of all elements →
- Specific heat capacity
- 0.236 J/(g·K) Compare Specific heat capacity of all elements →
- Molar heat capacity
- 37.03 J/(mol·K) Compare Molar heat capacity of all elements →
- Crystal structure
- Hexagonal close-packed Compare Crystal structure of all elements →
Chemical
- Electronegativity (Pauling)
- 1.2 Compare Electronegativity (Pauling) of all elements →
- Electron affinity
- 0.132 eV
- Ionization energy (1st)
- 6.1498 eV Compare Ionization energy (1st) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (2nd)
- 12.076042 eV Compare Ionization energy (2nd) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (3rd)
- 20.540071 eV Compare Ionization energy (3rd) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (4th)
- 44.440153 eV Compare Ionization energy (4th) of all elements →
- Ionization energy (5th)
- 64.800223 eV Compare Ionization energy (5th) of all elements →
- Oxidation states
- 0, +1, +2, +3 Compare Oxidation states of all elements →
- Valence electrons
- 3 Compare Valence electrons of all elements →
- Electron configuration
- [Xe] 6s2 4f7 5d1
Thermodynamic
- Heat of fusion
- 0.10364305 eV Compare Heat of fusion of all elements →
- Heat of vaporization
- 3.109292 eV Compare Heat of vaporization of all elements →
- Heat of sublimation
- 4.124994 eV
- Heat of atomization
- 4.124994 eV
- Atomization enthalpy
- 4.119811 eV
Nuclear
- Protons
- 64 Compare Protons of all elements →
- Neutrons
- 94 Compare Neutrons of all elements →
- Known isotopes
- 40 Compare Known isotopes of all elements →
- Stable isotopes
- 5 Compare Stable isotopes of all elements →
- Most stable isotope
- Gd-158
- Discovery year
- 1886
Abundance
- Abundance (Earth's crust)
- 6.2 mg/kg Compare Abundance (Earth's crust) of all elements →
- Abundance (ocean)
- 7 × 10−7 mg/L Compare Abundance (ocean) of all elements →
Crystal Structure
- Lattice constant a
- 364 pm
Electronic Structure
- Electrons per shell
- 2, 8, 18, 25, 9, 2 Compare Electrons per shell of all elements →
Identifiers
- CAS number
- 7440-54-2 Compare CAS number of all elements →
- Term symbol
- 9D°2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Gd
- InChI Key
- UIWYJDYFSGRHKR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Electron Configuration Measured
Gd: 4f⁷ 5d¹ 6s²[Xe] 4f⁷ 5d¹ 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f⁷ 5d¹ 6s²Atomic model
Isotopes change neutron count, mass, and stability — not the electron configuration of a neutral atom.
Schematic atomic model, not to scale.
Atomic Fingerprint
Emission / Absorption Spectrum
Isotope Distribution
| Mass number | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life |
|---|---|---|---|
| 154 Stable | 153.9208741 ± 0.0000017 | 2.1800% | Stable |
| 155 Stable | 154.9226305 ± 0.0000017 | 14.8000% | Stable |
| 156 Stable | 155.9221312 ± 0.0000017 | 20.4700% | Stable |
| 157 Stable | 156.9239686 ± 0.0000017 | 15.6500% | Stable |
| 158 Stable | 157.9241123 ± 0.0000017 | 24.8400% | Stable |
Phase / State
Reason: 1287.8 °C below melting point (1312.85 °C)
Schematic, not to scale
Phase transition points
Transition energies
Energy required to melt 1 mol at melting point
Energy required to vaporize 1 mol at boiling point
Energy required to sublime 1 mol at sublimation point
Density
At standard conditions
At standard conditions
Atomic Spectra
Showing 10 of 64. Sorted by ion charge (ascending).
Lines Holdings ?
| Ion | Charge | Total lines | Transition probabilities | Level designations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gd I | 0 | 371 | 16 | 19 |
| Gd II | +1 | 465 | 0 | 17 |
| Gd III | +2 | 158 | 0 | 0 |
| Gd IV | +3 | 50 | 0 | 0 |
Levels Holdings ?
| Ion | Charge | Levels |
|---|---|---|
| Gd I | 0 | 634 |
| Gd II | +1 | 321 |
| Gd III | +2 | 28 |
| Gd IV | +3 | 5 |
| Gd V | +4 | 2 |
| Gd VI | +5 | 2 |
| Gd VII | +6 | 2 |
| Gd VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Gd IX | +8 | 2 |
| Gd X | +9 | 2 |
Ionic Radii
| Charge | Coordination | Spin | Radius |
|---|---|---|---|
| +3 | 6 | N/A | 93.8 pm |
| +3 | 7 | N/A | 100 pm |
| +3 | 8 | N/A | 105.3 pm |
| +3 | 9 | N/A | 110.7 pm |
Compounds
Isotopes (5)
Natural gadolinium is a mixture of seven isotopes, but 17 isotopes of gadolinium are now recognized. Although two of these, 155Gd and 157Gd, have excellent capture characteristics, they are only present naturally in low concentrations. As a result, gadolinium has a very fast burnout rate and has limited use as a nuclear control rod material.
| Mass number | Atomic mass (u) | Natural abundance | Half-life | Decay mode | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 154 Stable | 153.9208741 ± 0.0000017 | 2.1800% ± 0.0300% | Stable | stable | |
| 155 Stable | 154.9226305 ± 0.0000017 | 14.8000% ± 0.1200% | Stable | stable | |
| 156 Stable | 155.9221312 ± 0.0000017 | 20.4700% ± 0.0900% | Stable | stable | |
| 157 Stable | 156.9239686 ± 0.0000017 | 15.6500% ± 0.0200% | Stable | stable | |
| 158 Stable | 157.9241123 ± 0.0000017 | 24.8400% ± 0.0700% | Stable | stable |
Extended Properties
Covalent Radii (Extended)
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö)
- 169 pm
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö, double)
- 135 pm
- Covalent radius (Pyykkö, triple)
- 132 pm
Van der Waals Radii
- Alvarez
- 283 pm
- UFF
- 336.8 pm
- MM3
- 271 pm
Atomic & Metallic Radii
- Atomic radius (Rahm)
- 277 pm
Numbering Scales
- Mendeleev
- 27
- Pettifor
- 27
- Glawe
- 26
Electronegativity Scales
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 3
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 7
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 6
Polarizability & Dispersion
- Dipole polarizability
- 158 a.u.
- Dipole polarizability (unc.)
- 20 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 2340 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema Parameters
- Miedema molar volume
- 19.9 cm3/mol
- Miedema electron density
- 2
Supply Risk & Economics
- Production concentration
- 97
- Relative supply risk
- 10
- Reserve distribution
- 50
- Political stability (top producer)
- 24
- Political stability (top reserve)
- 24
Phase Transitions & Allotropes
| Melting point | 1586.15 K |
| Boiling point | 3546.15 K |
Oxidation State Categories
Advanced Reference Data
Screening Constants (13)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.2565 |
| 2 | p | 4.2946 |
| 2 | s | 16.783 |
| 3 | d | 13.723 |
| 3 | p | 19.8508 |
| 3 | s | 20.2903 |
| 4 | d | 34.3664 |
| 4 | f | 38.9864 |
| 4 | p | 31.3532 |
| 4 | s | 30.556 |
Crystal Radii Detail (4)
| Charge | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Origin |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | VI | 107.8 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VII | 114 | ||
| 3 | VIII | 119.3 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | IX | 124.7 | from r^3 vs V plots, calculated, |
Isotope Decay Modes (57)
| Isotope | Mode | Intensity |
|---|---|---|
| 133 | B+ | — |
| 133 | B+p | — |
| 134 | B+ | — |
| 134 | B+p | — |
| 135 | B+ | 100% |
| 135 | B+p | 2% |
| 136 | B+ | — |
| 136 | B+p | — |
| 137 | B+ | 100% |
| 137 | B+p | — |
X‑ray Scattering Factors (719)
| Energy (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 2.59886 |
| 10.1152 | — | 2.63957 |
| 10.2317 | — | 2.68119 |
| 10.3496 | — | 2.72415 |
| 10.4688 | — | 2.7678 |
| 10.5894 | — | 2.81214 |
| 10.7114 | — | 2.8572 |
| 10.8348 | — | 2.90298 |
| 10.9596 | — | 2.94949 |
| 11.0859 | — | 2.99675 |
Additional Data
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
6.2 milligrams per kilogram
References (1)
- [5] Gadolinium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele064.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
7×10-7 milligrams per liter
References (1)
- [5] Gadolinium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele064.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
Gadolinium is found in several other minerals, including monazite and bastnasite, both of which are commercially important. With the development of ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques, the availability and prices of gadolinium and the other rare-earth metals have greatly improved. The metal can be prepared by the reduction of the anhydrous fluoride with metallic calcium.
References (1)
- [6] Gadolinium https://periodic.lanl.gov/64.shtml
References
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
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The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
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This section provides all form of data related to element Gadolinium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.