Thallium (Tl)
post-transition-metalSolid
标准原子量
204.38 u [204.382, 204.385]电子排布
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p1熔点
303.85 °C沸点
1472.85 °C密度
1.18e+4 kg/m³氧化态
−5, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3电负性（鲍林）
1.62第一电离能
6.108287 eV发现年份
1861原子半径
190 pm详细信息
Thallium is a soft post-transition metal in group 13. It is chemically notable for the stability of the +1 oxidation state, which reflects the inert-pair effect and makes many thallium(I) salts resemble alkali-metal salts in size and solubility behavior. The element is rare in ores and is usually recovered as a by-product of processing sulfide minerals. Its severe toxicity has greatly reduced former consumer and agricultural uses.
When freshly exposed to air, thallium exhibits a metallic luster, but soon develops a bluish-gray tinge, resembling lead in appearance. A heavy oxide builds up on thallium if left in air, and in the presence of water the hydride is formed. The metal is very soft and malleable. It can be cut with a knife. Twenty five isotopic forms of thallium, with atomic masses ranging from 184 to 210 are recognized. Natural thallium is a mixture of two isotopes. A mercury-thallium alloy, which forms a eutectic at 8.5% thallium, is reported to freeze at -60C, some 20 degrees below the freezing point of mercury.
The name derives from the Greek thallos for "green shoot" or "twig" because of the bright green line in its spectrum. Thallium was discovered by the English physicist and chemist William Crookes in 1861. Metallic thallium was first isolated by the French chemist Claude-Auguste Lamy in 1862.
Thallium was discovered spectroscopically by Sir William Crookes, an English chemist, in 1861. Crooks had obtained the sludge left over from the production of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) from a friend. After removing all of the selenium from the sludge, he inspected it with a device known as a spectroscope to look for signs of tellurium. Rather than seeing the yellow spectral lines produced by tellurium, he observed a bright green line that no one had ever seen before. He named the new element that was producing the green line thallium, after the greek word for 'green twig', thallos. He isolated samples of thallium the next year. Thallium is found in the minerals crooksite (CuThSe), lorandite (TlAsS2) and hutchinsonite ((Pb, Tl)2As5S9), but is usually obtained as a byproduct of the production of sulfuric acid or as a byproduct of refining zinc or lead.
From Greek thallos, meanin a green shoot or twig. Thallium was discovered spectroscopically in 1861 by Crookes. The element was named after the beautiful green spectral line, which identified the element. The metal was isolated both by Crookes and by Lamy in 1862 at about the same time.
Pure thallium is a very soft, heavy metal with a fresh silvery luster. It tarnishes readily in air, developing a dull gray oxide coating. It is malleable enough to be cut with a knife and has a relatively low melting point for a metal.
Current uses are limited by toxicity and regulation. Thallium is used in some specialty infrared optical materials, low-melting glasses, and semiconductor or detector research. Thallium-201 is an important medical radioisotope for diagnostic imaging of cardiac perfusion. Historical uses included rodenticides, insecticides, and depilatory agents, but these were abandoned or tightly restricted in many countries because of poisoning risks.
There are no uses for metallic thallium since pure thallium quickly combines with oxygen and water vapor from the atmosphere, forming a black, powdery substance. Thallium, used in conjunction with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, forms low melting glass. Thallium sulfate (Tl2SO4), an odorless, tasteless thallium compound, was once used as a rat and ant poison, although it has been banned from household use in the United States since 1974. Thallium sulfide (Tl2S), thallium iodide (TlI) and thallium bromide (TlBr) are all compounds used in devices to detect infrared radiation.
Thallium sulfate has been widely employed as a rodenticide and ant killer. It is odorless and tasteless, giving no warning of its presence. Its use, however, has been prohibited in the U.S. since 1975 as a household insecticide and rodenticide. The electrical conductivity of thallium sulfide changes with exposure to infrared light, and this compound is used in photocells. Thallium bromide-iodide crystals have been used as infrared optical materials. Thallium has been used, with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, to produce low melting glasses with become fluid between 125 and 150C. These glasses have properties at room temperatures similar to ordinary glasses and are said to be durable and insoluble in water. Thallium oxide has been used to produce glasses with a high index of refraction, and is used in the manufacture of photo cells. Thallium has been used in treating ringworm and other skin infections; however, its use has been limited because of the narrow margin between toxicity and therapeutic benefits.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of thallium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are substantial variations in the isotopic abundances of thallium in natural terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.81.1). These variations are useful in investigating the origin of substances and studying environmental, hydrological, and geological processes [538] M. Rehkamper, M. Frank, J. R. Hein, D. Porcelli, A. Halliday, J. Ingri, V. Liebetrau. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett.197, 65 (2002).. The isotope-amount ratio n(205Tl)/n(203Tl) has been used to study how trace metals are transported and distributed in hydrothermal fluids [538] M. Rehkamper, M. Frank, J. R. Hein, D. Porcelli, A. Halliday, J. Ingri, V. Liebetrau. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett.197, 65 (2002).. The n(205Tl)/n(203Tl) ratio has also been used to study the cycling, distribution, and behavior of thallium in the marine environment [538] M. Rehkamper, M. Frank, J. R. Hein, D. Porcelli, A. Halliday, J. Ingri, V. Liebetrau. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett.197, 65 (2002)..
Isotopes in Medicine
201Tl scintigraphy is used to detect coronary artery disease [539] G. A. Beller, B. L. Zaret. Circulation101, 1465 (2000).. Imaging of 201Tl (with a half-life of 3 days), can be used for exercise perfusion tests of the myocardium (muscular tissue of the heart), which determine damage to the heart caused by a heart attack or by heart disease (Fig. IUPAC.81.2) [539] G. A. Beller, B. L. Zaret. Circulation101, 1465 (2000)..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
203Tl is used in the production of 201Tl via the 203Tl (p, 3 n) 201Pb reaction, which is followed by a subsequent electron capture decay reaction of 201Pb to finally yield 201Tl. 205Tl is used as an alternative target in the production of 201Tl.
Thallium chemistry is dominated by thallium(I), Tl⁺, and thallium(III), Tl³⁺, with Tl⁺ usually more stable in aqueous and many solid-state compounds. Representative thallium(I) compounds include thallium(I) sulfate, Tl₂SO₄, thallium(I) nitrate, TlNO₃, and thallium(I) chloride, TlCl. Thallium(III) oxide, Tl₂O₃, and thallium(III) chloride, TlCl₃, are stronger oxidizing or less stable species. Mixed thallium compounds occur in chalcogenide and halide materials used for optical and electronic studies.
See more information at the Thallium compound page.
Thallium and soluble thallium compounds are highly toxic by ingestion, inhalation, or skin exposure. Tl⁺ can interfere with potassium-dependent biological processes, and poisoning may have delayed neurological, gastrointestinal, and hair-loss symptoms. Dusts, fumes, and soluble salts are the main occupational hazards. Radioisotopes such as thallium-201 add external and internal radiation hazards that are isotope- and activity-dependent.
The element and its compounds are toxic and should be handled carefully. Contact of the metal with skin is dangerous, and when melting the metal adequate ventilation should be provided. Exposure to thallium (soluble compounds) - skin, as Tl, should not exceed 0.1 mg/m3 (8-hour time-weighted average - 40-hour work week). Thallium is suspected of carcinogenic potential for man.
Thallium occurs naturally at low concentrations, commonly associated with potassium minerals, sulfide ores, and some coals. Mining, smelting, cement production, and coal combustion can mobilize it locally. In the environment, Tl⁺ is relatively mobile in some waters and can be taken up by plants because of its chemical similarity to K⁺. It has no known beneficial biological role and can be a concern near contaminated industrial sites.
Thallium is not mined as a primary product. It is recovered mainly from flue dusts, residues, and by-product streams generated during refining of zinc, lead, copper, and other sulfide ores. Demand is small and specialized, with toxicity limiting broader applications and encouraging substitution. Supply can therefore depend more on base-metal processing practices, regulatory controls, and purification capacity than on dedicated thallium mining. Recycling is limited to particular industrial or research materials.
Thallium occurs in crooksite, lorandite, and hutchinsonite. It is also present in pyrites and is recovered from the roasting of this ore in connection with the production of sulfuric acid. It is also obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc ores. Extraction is somewhat complex and depends on the source of the thallium. Manganese nodules, found on the ocean floor, contain thallium.
Thallium is a heavy, rare element in cosmic terms. Its stable isotopes, ²⁰³Tl and ²⁰⁵Tl, are produced by neutron-capture processes in earlier generations of stars, with contributions from both slow and rapid neutron-capture pathways. It is not a major rock-forming element, but on planets it can concentrate in sulfide phases and volatile-rich geochemical reservoirs.
- Thallium was discovered by its bright green spectral line, which inspired its name from the Greek word for a green shoot
- Fresh thallium can be cut easily, but the exposed surface dulls quickly in air
- Tl⁺ is close enough in behavior to K⁺ to enter some biological potassium pathways
- Thallium(I) sulfate, Tl₂SO₄, was once used as a rodenticide before its toxicity led to severe restrictions
- Natural thallium consists chiefly of two stable isotopes, ²⁰³Tl and ²⁰⁵Tl
图片
性质
物理性质
- 原子半径（经验值）
- 190 pm 比较所有元素的原子半径（经验值） →
- 共价半径
- 145 pm 比较所有元素的共价半径 →
- 范德华半径
- 196 pm 比较所有元素的范德华半径 →
- 金属半径
- 144 pm 比较所有元素的金属半径 →
- 密度
- 1.18 × 104 kg/m³ 比较所有元素的密度 →
- 摩尔体积
- 0.0172 L/mol
- 标准温度和压力下的物相
- 固态 比较所有元素的标准温度和压力下的物相 →
- 熔点
- 303.85 °C 比较所有元素的熔点 →
- 沸点
- 1472.85 °C 比较所有元素的沸点 →
- 热导率
- 46.1 W/(m·K) 比较所有元素的热导率 →
- 比热容
- 0.129 J/(g·K) 比较所有元素的比热容 →
- 摩尔热容
- 26.32 J/(mol·K) 比较所有元素的摩尔热容 →
- 晶体结构
- 六方密堆积 比较所有元素的晶体结构 →
化学性质
- 电负性（鲍林）
- 1.62 比较所有元素的电负性（鲍林） →
- 电负性（Allen）
- 1.789
- 电子亲和能
- 0.377 eV
- 第一电离能
- 6.108287 eV 比较所有元素的第一电离能 →
- 第二电离能
- 20.42837 eV 比较所有元素的第二电离能 →
- 第三电离能
- 29.852103 eV 比较所有元素的第三电离能 →
- 第四电离能
- 51.140176 eV 比较所有元素的第四电离能 →
- 第五电离能
- 62.600215 eV 比较所有元素的第五电离能 →
- 氧化态
- −5, −2, −1, +1, +2, +3 比较所有元素的氧化态 →
- 价电子
- 3 比较所有元素的价电子 →
- 电子排布
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p1
热力学性质
- 熔化热
- 0.04290822 eV 比较所有元素的熔化热 →
- 汽化热
- 1.71011 eV 比较所有元素的汽化热 →
- 升华热
- 1.888376 eV
- 原子化热
- 1.888376 eV
- 原子化焓
- 1.888376 eV
核性质
- 质子
- 81 比较所有元素的质子 →
- 中子
- 124 比较所有元素的中子 →
- 已知同位素
- 43 比较所有元素的已知同位素 →
- 稳定同位素
- 2 比较所有元素的稳定同位素 →
- 最稳定同位素
- Tl-205
- 发现年份
- 1861
丰度
- 丰度（地壳）
- 0.85 mg/kg 比较所有元素的丰度（地壳） →
- 丰度（海洋）
- 1.9 × 10−5 mg/L 比较所有元素的丰度（海洋） →
晶体结构
- 晶格常数a
- 346 pm
电子结构
- 各电子层电子数
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3 比较所有元素的各电子层电子数 →
标识符
- CAS登记号
- 7440-28-0 比较所有元素的CAS登记号 →
- 谱项符号
- 2P°1/2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Tl
- InChI Key
- BKVIYDNLLOSFOA-UHFFFAOYSA-N
电子排布 实测值
Tl: 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p¹[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p¹1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p¹原子模型
不同同位素的中子数、质量和稳定性不同，但中性原子的电子排布不变。
原子模型示意图，未按比例绘制。
原子指纹
发射 / 吸收光谱
同位素分布
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 203 稳定 | 202.9723446 ± 0.0000014 | 29.5200% | 稳定 |
| 205 稳定 | 204.9744278 ± 0.0000014 | 70.4800% | 稳定 |
物相 / 状态
原因: 低于熔点（303.85 °C）278.9 °C
示意图，未按比例绘制
相变点
相变能
在熔点熔化1 mol物质所需的能量
在沸点汽化1 mol物质所需的能量
在升华点升华1 mol物质所需的能量
密度
标准条件下
标准条件下
原子光谱
已显示10项，共81项。 按离子电荷升序排列。
收录能级 ?
| 离子 | 电荷 | 能级 |
|---|---|---|
| Tl I | 0 | 70 |
| Tl II | +1 | 82 |
| Tl III | +2 | 109 |
| Tl IV | +3 | 44 |
| Tl V | +4 | 2 |
| Tl VI | +5 | 2 |
| Tl VII | +6 | 2 |
| Tl VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Tl IX | +8 | 2 |
| Tl X | +9 | 2 |
离子半径
| 电荷 | 配位 | 自旋 | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +1 | 6 | 暂无 | 150 pm |
| +1 | 8 | 暂无 | 159 pm |
| +1 | 12 | 暂无 | 170 pm |
| +3 | 4 | 暂无 | 75 pm |
| +3 | 6 | 暂无 | 88.5 pm |
| +3 | 8 | 暂无 | 98 pm |
化合物
同位素 (2)
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 | 衰变方式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 203 稳定 | 202.9723446 ± 0.0000014 | 29.5200% ± 0.0100% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 205 稳定 | 204.9744278 ± 0.0000014 | 70.4800% ± 0.0100% | 稳定 | stable |
扩展性质
共价半径（扩展）
- 共价半径（Pyykkö）
- 144 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，双键）
- 142 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，三键）
- 150 pm
- 共价半径（Bragg）
- 190 pm
范德华半径
- Bondi
- 196 pm
- Batsanov
- 220 pm
- Alvarez
- 247 pm
- UFF
- 434.7 pm
- MM3
- 259 pm
原子半径与金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 242 pm
- 金属半径（C12）
- 160 pm
编号标度
- Mendeleev
- 85
- Pettifor
- 78
- Glawe
- 81
电负性标度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 4
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 3
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 2
极化率与色散
- 偶极极化率
- 50 a.u.
- 偶极极化率（不确定度）
- 2 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 509 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema参数
- Miedema摩尔体积
- 17.23 cm3/mol
- Miedema电子密度
- 1
相变与同素异形体
| 熔点 | 577.15 K |
| 沸点 | 1746.15 K |
氧化态分类
高级参考数据
屏蔽常数 (15)
| n | 轨道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.5591 |
| 2 | p | 4.5138 |
| 2 | s | 21.3158 |
| 3 | d | 13.4658 |
| 3 | p | 22.6335 |
| 3 | s | 23.5809 |
| 4 | d | 37.6112 |
| 4 | f | 38.1324 |
| 4 | p | 35.7832 |
| 4 | s | 34.9212 |
晶体半径详情 (6)
| 电荷 | CN | 自旋 | rcrystal (pm) | 来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | VI | 164 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 1 | VIII | 173 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 1 | XII | 184 | from r^3 vs V plots, estimated, | |
| 3 | IV | 89 | ||
| 3 | VI | 102.5 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VIII | 112 | calculated, |
同位素衰变方式 (69)
| 同位素 | 模式 | 强度 |
|---|---|---|
| 176 | p | 100% |
| 176 | A | — |
| 176 | B+ | — |
| 177 | A | 73% |
| 177 | p | — |
| 178 | A | 62% |
| 178 | B+ | 38% |
| 178 | B+SF | 0.1% |
| 179 | A | 60% |
| 179 | B+ | — |
X射线散射因子 (516)
| 能量 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 1.80392 |
| 10.1617 | — | 1.75555 |
| 10.3261 | — | 1.69589 |
| 10.4931 | — | 1.59546 |
| 10.6628 | — | 1.46625 |
| 10.8353 | — | 1.39341 |
| 11.0106 | — | 1.31349 |
| 11.1886 | — | 1.20783 |
| 11.3696 | — | 1.13261 |
| 11.5535 | — | 1.07387 |
补充数据
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
8.5×10-1 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Thallium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele081.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
1.9×10-5 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Thallium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele081.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
Thallium occurs in crooksite, lorandite, and hutchinsonite. It is also present in pyrites and is recovered from the roasting of this ore in connection with the production of sulfuric acid. It is also obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc ores. Extraction is somewhat complex and depends on the source of the thallium. Manganese nodules, found on the ocean floor, contain thallium.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Thallium https://periodic.lanl.gov/81.shtml
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
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The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Thallium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.