Erbium (Er)
lanthanideSolid
标准原子量
167.259 u电子排布
[Xe] 6s2 4f12熔点
1528.85 °C沸点
2867.85 °C密度
9070 kg/m³氧化态
0, +1, +2, +3电负性（鲍林）
1.24第一电离能
6.1077 eV发现年份
1843原子半径
175 pm详细信息
Erbium is a lanthanide metal and one of the heavier rare-earth elements. In compounds it is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, giving many salts a characteristic pale pink color. Its greatest technological importance comes from optical transitions of Er³⁺ ions, especially in silica glass, where they enable amplification near 1.55 micrometres for fiber-optic communications. It occurs in nature with other rare earths rather than as a native metal.
The pure metal is soft and malleable and has a bright, silvery, metallic luster. As with other rare-earth metals, its properties depend to a certain extent on the impurities present. The metal is fairly stable in air and does not oxidize as rapidly as some of the other rare-earth metals. Naturally occurring erbium is a mixture of six isotopes, all of which are stable. Nine radioactive isotopes of erbium are also recognized. Recent production techniques, using ion-exchange reactions, have resulted in much lower prices of the rare-earth metals and their compounds in recent years. Most of the rare-earth oxides have sharp absorption bands in the visible, ultraviolet, and near infrared. This property, associated with the electronic structure, gives beautiful pastel colors to many of the rare-earth salts.
The name derives from the Swedish town of Ytterby, where the ore gadolinite (in which it was found) was first mined. Erbium was discovered by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl-Gustav Mosander in 1843 in a yttrium sample. He separated the yttrium into yttrium, a rose-coloured salt he called terbium and a deep-yellow peroxide that he called erbium.
The mineral gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y)2FeBe2Si2O10), discovered in a quarry near the town of Ytterby, Sweden, has been the source of a great number of rare earth elements. In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander, a Swedish chemist, was able to separate gadolinite into three materials, which he named yttria, erbia and terbia. As might be expected considering the similarities between their names and properties, scientists soon confused erbia and terbia and, by 1877, had reversed their names. What Mosander called erbia is now called terbia and visa versa. From these two substances, Mosander discovered two new elements, terbium and erbium. Today, erbium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from the minerals xenotime (YPO4) and euxenite ((Y, Ca, Er, La, Ce, U, Th)(Nb, Ta, Ti)2O6).
Erbium, one of the so-called rare-earth elements on the lanthanide series, is found in the minerals mentioned under dysprosium. In 1842 Mosander separated "yttria" found in the mineral gadolinite, into three fractions which he called yttria, erbia, and terbia. The names erbia and terbia became confused in this early period. After 1860, Mosander's terbia was known as erbia, and after 1877, the earlier known erbia became terbia. The erbia of this period was later shown to consist of five oxides, now known as erbia, scandia, holmia, thulia and ytterbia. By 1905 Urbain and James independently succeeded in isolating fairly pure Er2O3. Klemm and Bommer first produced reasonably pure erbium metal in 1934 by reducing the anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor.
Pure erbium is a silvery-white metal with a metallic lustre. It is soft and malleable compared with many common structural metals, and it slowly tarnishes in air as an oxide layer forms. Finely divided erbium reacts more readily than massive pieces.
Erbium-doped silica glass is used in optical fiber amplifiers and some fiber lasers, where Er³⁺ emits in the low-loss telecommunications window. Erbium-doped crystals and glasses are also used in solid-state lasers, including medical and dental laser systems that couple strongly to water. Small additions of erbium can modify the properties of some alloys and nuclear materials, but these uses are limited compared with optical applications. Erbium oxide is used as a pink colorant in glass and ceramics.
Erbium is alloyed with vanadium to make it softer and easier to shape. Erbium is added to fiber optic cables as a doping agent where it is used as a signal amplifier. Erbium also has some uses in the nuclear power industry.
Erbia, the renamed material that Mosander discovered in 1843, is erbium oxide (Er2O3), one of erbium's compounds. Erbia has a pink color and is used to color glass and glazes. Other erbium compounds include: erbium fluoride (ErF3, erbium chloride (ErCl3 and erbium iodide (ErI3).
Erbium is finding nuclear and metallurgical uses. Added to vanadium, for example, erbium lowers the hardness and improves workability. Erbium oxide gives a pink color and has been used as a colorant in glasses and porcelain enamel glazes.
Isotopes in Biology
Radiolabeled 171Er (with a half-life of 7.5 h) tablets have been used to study bowel movements of individuals using external scintigraphy. Such tablets have an enteric coating and contain small amounts of stable erbium oxide (170Er) initially. The tablets are then irradiated at a low neutron flux to produce radioactively labeled 171Er tablets, via the 170Er (n, γ) 171Er reaction. This method is a noninvasive approach for determining gastric emptying rates and visualizing segments of the digestive system in an individual [479] A. Parr, R. M. Beihn, M. Jay. Int. J. Pharm.32, 251 (1986)., [480] M. C. Theodorakis. Am. Physiol. Soc. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.239, G39 (1980)..
Isotopes in Medicine
169Er (with a half-life of 9.4 days) is used in radiosynovectomy, which is a regularly practiced radiotherapy, on rheumatoid arthritis patients whose condition is resistant to standard methods of treatment (Fig. IUPAC.68.1). Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of the joint capsule (synovial sac), which is lined with a thin membrane called the synovium, of an individual’s moveable joints (synovial joints). In radiosynovectomy, the radiopharmaceutical called 169Er- citrate colloid, which contains colloidal particles that are labeled with β-emitting 169Er, is directly injected into the synovial cavity (the cavity between the bones in a moveable joint inside of the synovium) of the affected joint. These radioactive-colloid particles are then phagocytized (engulfed) by macrophage-like synoviocytes as well as other phagocytizing inflammatory cells in the patient’s synovium. Necrosis (tissue death) and the inhabitation of cell proliferation (increase in number of cells) result from the radiation of the synovium and therefore, temporarily halts synovitis (which is the condition of when the synovium thickens with inflammation) and improves synovial joint function [481] F. M. van der Zanta, Z. N. Jahangierb, G. G. M. Gommansa, J. D. Moolenburghc, J. W. G. Jacobs. Appl. Radiat. Isot.65, 649 (2007)., [482] S. J. Kim, K. A. Jung. Clin. Med. Res.5, 244 (2007)., [483] M. E. A. McNeil. The First Year Rheumatoid Arthritis: An Essential Guide for the Newly Diagnosed, Marlowe & Company, New York, NY (2005)., [484] G. Prabhakar, S. S. Sachdev, N. Sivaprasad. Pharma Times41, 11 (2009)..
Erbium chemistry is typical of the trivalent lanthanides. Erbium(III) oxide, Er₂O₃, is a stable pink oxide and an important commercial intermediate. Erbium(III) chloride, ErCl₃, and erbium(III) nitrate, Er(NO₃)₃, form hydrated salts used in preparation and research. Er³⁺ is a hard Lewis acid and forms complexes with oxygen- and nitrogen-donor ligands. The +2 state is uncommon and strongly reducing; the +4 state is not a normal part of erbium chemistry under ordinary conditions.
See more information at the Erbium compound page.
Metallic erbium has low acute toxicity, but dust or turnings can present fire and inhalation hazards, as with many finely divided reactive metals. Soluble erbium salts should be handled as irritants and potential systemic toxicants because rare-earth ions can interact with biological ligands. Erbium has no known essential biological role. Natural erbium is only weakly radioactive in the practical sense; isotope-specific radiation hazards apply mainly to artificially produced radioisotopes.
Erbium is dispersed in the crust in rare-earth minerals such as monazite and xenotime, always mixed with chemically similar lanthanides. Weathering can release Er³⁺ into soils and sediments, where it tends to bind to clays, phosphates, carbonates, and organic matter rather than remain highly mobile. It has no established biological function, and environmental concern is usually linked to mining, separation reagents, and waste streams rather than to erbium alone.
Erbium is obtained as a by-product of rare-earth mining and separation, not from ores mined specifically for erbium. Processing relies on solvent extraction or ion-exchange methods to separate it from neighboring lanthanides with very similar chemistry. Demand is specialized and strongly tied to optical materials, lasers, and colorants, so the market is much smaller than for major light rare earths or magnet materials. Recycling is limited because erbium is often present as a dilute dopant in glass or ceramics, where recovery is technically possible but rarely economical.
Found with other heavier rare earths in xenotime and euxerite.
Erbium is a trace element in the cosmos. Its stable isotopes were made mainly by slow and rapid neutron-capture processes in earlier generations of stars, followed by incorporation into interstellar dust and later planetary material. In meteorites and rocky planets it behaves as a refractory lithophile rare earth and is concentrated with other lanthanides rather than forming separate phases.
- The name erbium comes from Ytterby, the Swedish village that also gave names to yttrium, terbium, and ytterbium.
- Er³⁺ in glass can amplify light directly inside an optical fiber without converting the signal to electricity.
- Erbium oxide is pink, although the pure metal is silvery.
- Natural erbium contains several stable isotopes, with ¹⁶⁶Er the most abundant.
- Erbium and holmium discoveries were historically entangled because rare-earth oxides were difficult to separate.
图片
性质
物理性质
- 原子半径（经验值）
- 175 pm 比较所有元素的原子半径（经验值） →
- 共价半径
- 189 pm 比较所有元素的共价半径 →
- 范德华半径
- 235 pm 比较所有元素的范德华半径 →
- 密度
- 9070 kg/m³ 比较所有元素的密度 →
- 摩尔体积
- 0.0184 L/mol
- 标准温度和压力下的物相
- 固态 比较所有元素的标准温度和压力下的物相 →
- 熔点
- 1528.85 °C 比较所有元素的熔点 →
- 沸点
- 2867.85 °C 比较所有元素的沸点 →
- 比热容
- 0.168 J/(g·K) 比较所有元素的比热容 →
- 摩尔热容
- 28.12 J/(mol·K) 比较所有元素的摩尔热容 →
- 晶体结构
- 六方密堆积 比较所有元素的晶体结构 →
化学性质
- 电负性（鲍林）
- 1.24 比较所有元素的电负性（鲍林） →
- 电子亲和能
- 0.312 eV
- 第一电离能
- 6.1077 eV 比较所有元素的第一电离能 →
- 第二电离能
- 11.916041 eV 比较所有元素的第二电离能 →
- 第三电离能
- 22.700078 eV 比较所有元素的第三电离能 →
- 第四电离能
- 42.420146 eV 比较所有元素的第四电离能 →
- 第五电离能
- 65.100224 eV 比较所有元素的第五电离能 →
- 氧化态
- 0, +1, +2, +3 比较所有元素的氧化态 →
- 价电子
- 3 比较所有元素的价电子 →
- 电子排布
- [Xe] 6s2 4f12
热力学性质
- 熔化热
- 0.11815308 eV 比较所有元素的熔化热 →
- 汽化热
- 2.902005 eV 比较所有元素的汽化热 →
- 升华热
- 3.285485 eV
- 原子化热
- 3.285485 eV
- 原子化焓
- 3.279266 eV
核性质
- 质子
- 68 比较所有元素的质子 →
- 中子
- 98 比较所有元素的中子 →
- 已知同位素
- 39 比较所有元素的已知同位素 →
- 稳定同位素
- 4 比较所有元素的稳定同位素 →
- 最稳定同位素
- Er-166
- 发现年份
- 1843
丰度
- 丰度（地壳）
- 3.5 mg/kg 比较所有元素的丰度（地壳） →
- 丰度（海洋）
- 8.7 × 10−7 mg/L 比较所有元素的丰度（海洋） →
晶体结构
- 晶格常数a
- 356 pm
电子结构
- 各电子层电子数
- 2, 8, 18, 30, 8, 2 比较所有元素的各电子层电子数 →
标识符
- CAS登记号
- 7440-52-0 比较所有元素的CAS登记号 →
- 谱项符号
- 3H6
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Er
- InChI Key
- UYAHIZSMUZPPFV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
电子排布 实测值
Er: 4f¹² 6s²[Xe] 4f¹² 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹² 6s²原子模型
不同同位素的中子数、质量和稳定性不同，但中性原子的电子排布不变。
原子模型示意图，未按比例绘制。
原子指纹
发射 / 吸收光谱
同位素分布
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 164 稳定 | 163.9292088 ± 0.000002 | 1.6010% | 稳定 |
| 166 稳定 | 165.9302995 ± 0.0000022 | 33.5030% | 稳定 |
| 167 稳定 | 166.9320546 ± 0.0000022 | 22.8690% | 稳定 |
| 168 稳定 | 167.9323767 ± 0.0000022 | 26.9780% | 稳定 |
物相 / 状态
原因: 低于熔点（1528.85 °C）1503.8 °C
示意图，未按比例绘制
相变点
相变能
在熔点熔化1 mol物质所需的能量
在沸点汽化1 mol物质所需的能量
在升华点升华1 mol物质所需的能量
密度
标准条件下
标准条件下
原子光谱
已显示10项，共68项。 按离子电荷升序排列。
收录能级 ?
| 离子 | 电荷 | 能级 |
|---|---|---|
| Er I | 0 | 674 |
| Er II | +1 | 362 |
| Er III | +2 | 53 |
| Er IV | +3 | 10 |
| Er V | +4 | 2 |
| Er VI | +5 | 2 |
| Er VII | +6 | 2 |
| Er VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Er IX | +8 | 2 |
| Er X | +9 | 2 |
离子半径
| 电荷 | 配位 | 自旋 | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +3 | 6 | 暂无 | 89 pm |
| +3 | 7 | 暂无 | 94.5 pm |
| +3 | 8 | 暂无 | 100.4 pm |
| +3 | 9 | 暂无 | 106.2 pm |
化合物
同位素 (4)
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 | 衰变方式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 164 稳定 | 163.9292088 ± 0.000002 | 1.6010% ± 0.0030% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 166 稳定 | 165.9302995 ± 0.0000022 | 33.5030% ± 0.0360% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 167 稳定 | 166.9320546 ± 0.0000022 | 22.8690% ± 0.0090% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 168 稳定 | 167.9323767 ± 0.0000022 | 26.9780% ± 0.0180% | 稳定 | stable |
扩展性质
共价半径（扩展）
- 共价半径（Pyykkö）
- 165 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，双键）
- 133 pm
范德华半径
- Alvarez
- 283 pm
- UFF
- 339.1 pm
- MM3
- 267 pm
原子半径与金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 272 pm
编号标度
- Mendeleev
- 35
- Pettifor
- 23
- Glawe
- 22
电负性标度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 3
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
极化率与色散
- 偶极极化率
- 150 a.u.
- 偶极极化率（不确定度）
- 10 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 2150 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema参数
- Miedema摩尔体积
- 18.45 cm3/mol
- Miedema电子密度
- 2
供应风险与经济性
- 生产集中度
- 97
- 相对供应风险
- 10
- 储量分布
- 50
- 政治稳定性（最大生产国）
- 24
- 政治稳定性（最大储量国）
- 24
相变与同素异形体
| 熔点 | 1802.15 K |
| 沸点 | 3141.15 K |
氧化态分类
高级参考数据
屏蔽常数 (13)
| n | 轨道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.3263 |
| 2 | p | 4.346 |
| 2 | s | 17.7984 |
| 3 | d | 13.6397 |
| 3 | p | 20.3891 |
| 3 | s | 20.9231 |
| 4 | d | 35.7288 |
| 4 | f | 40.0216 |
| 4 | p | 32.8908 |
| 4 | s | 31.768 |
晶体半径详情 (4)
| 电荷 | CN | 自旋 | rcrystal (pm) | 来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | VI | 103 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VII | 108.5 | ||
| 3 | VIII | 114.4 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | IX | 120.2 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
同位素衰变方式 (52)
| 同位素 | 模式 | 强度 |
|---|---|---|
| 142 | p | — |
| 143 | B+ | — |
| 143 | B+p | — |
| 144 | B+ | — |
| 145 | B+ | 100% |
| 145 | B+p | — |
| 146 | B+ | 100% |
| 146 | B+p | — |
| 147 | B+ | 100% |
| 147 | B+p | — |
X射线散射因子 (514)
| 能量 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0.18333 |
| 10.1617 | — | 0.18626 |
| 10.3261 | — | 0.18925 |
| 10.4931 | — | 0.19229 |
| 10.6628 | — | 0.19537 |
| 10.8353 | — | 0.1985 |
| 11.0106 | — | 0.20168 |
| 11.1886 | — | 0.20739 |
| 11.3696 | — | 0.21399 |
| 11.5535 | — | 0.2208 |
补充数据
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
3.5 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
8.7×10-7 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Erbium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.