Holmium (Ho)
lanthanideSolid
标准原子量
164.93033 u电子排布
[Xe] 6s2 4f11熔点
1473.85 °C沸点
2699.85 °C密度
8800 kg/m³氧化态
0, +1, +2, +3电负性（鲍林）
1.23第一电离能
6.0215 eV发现年份
1878原子半径
175 pm详细信息
Holmium is a lanthanide metal and one of the heavy rare earth elements. In compounds it is almost always trivalent, forming Ho³⁺ salts with the pink, yellow, or pale colors typical of f-electron transitions. Natural holmium is monoisotopic, consisting essentially of stable ¹⁶⁵Ho. Its large magnetic moment gives the element and some of its compounds unusual magnetic behavior at low temperature.
Pure holmium has a metallic to bright silver luster. It is relatively soft and malleable and is stable in dry air at room temperature but rapidly oxidizes in moist air and at elevated temperatures. The metal has unusual magnetic properties. Few uses have yet been found for the element. The element, as with other rare earths, seems to have a low acute toxic rating.
The name derives from the Latin holmia for Stockholm. It was discovered in erbia earth by the Swiss chemist J. L. Soret in 1878, who referred to it as element X. It was later independently discovered by the Swedish chemist Per Theodor Cleve in 1879. It was first isolated in 1911 by Homberg, who proposed the name holmium either to recognize the discoverer Per Cleve, who was from Stockholm, or perhaps to establish his own name in history.
Holmium was discovered by Per Theodor Cleve, a Swedish chemist, in 1879. Cleve used the same method Carl Gustaf Mosander used to discover lanthanum, erbium and terbium, he looked for impurities in the oxides of other rare earth elements. He started with erbia, the oxide of erbium (Er2O3), and removed all of the known contaminants. After further processing, he obtained two new materials, one brown and the other green. Cleve named the brown material holmia and the green material thulia. Holmia is the oxide of the element holmium and thulia is the oxide of the element thulium. Holmium's absorption spectrum was observed earlier that year by J. L. Soret and M. Delafontaine, Swiss chemists. Today, holmium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements that can contain as much as 0.05% holmium. Holmium has no commercial applications, although it has unusual magnetic properties that could be exploited in the future.
Holmium forms no commercially important compounds. Some of holmium's compounds include: holmium oxide (Ho2O3), holmium fluoride (HoF3) and holmium iodide (HoI3).
From the Latin word Holmia meaning Stockholm. The special absorption bands of holmium were noticed in 1878 by the Swiss chemists Delafontaine and Soret, who announced the existence of an "Element X." Cleve, of Sweden, later independently discovered the element while working on erbia earth. The element is named after Cleve's native city. Holmia, the yellow oxide, was prepared by Homberg in 1911. Holmium occurs in gadolinite, monazite, and in other rare-earth minerals. It is commercially obtained from monazite, occurring in that mineral to the extent of about 0.05%. It has been isolated by the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with calcium metal.
Pure holmium is a soft, silvery, metallic solid that can be cut and worked when freshly prepared. It tarnishes slowly in air and is more reactive as filings or powder. Like other lanthanides, it has a high melting point and a close-packed metallic structure under ordinary conditions.
Holmium has specialized uses rather than large-volume applications. Holmium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet, Y₃Al₅O₁₂, is used in solid-state lasers emitting near 2.1 micrometres, including surgical and materials-processing systems. Holmium oxide, Ho₂O₃, is used as a colorant for glass and cubic zirconia and as a wavelength calibration material in optical spectrophotometry. Metallic holmium and holmium-containing alloys are also used in magnetic research and in some high-field magnet pole pieces.
It has very few practical applications; however, it has some unusual magnetic properties that offer some hope for future applications.
Isotopes in Medicine
Radiosynovectomy with 166Ho-radiopharmaceutical agents can be used for treatment of arthritis. The half-life of 166Ho is 1.1 days. 166Ho ferric hydroxide macroaggregate ([ 166Ho] FHMA) radiosynovectomy is being used because FHMA minimizes extra-articular (outside a joint) leakage of the radioisotope [472] S. Zeisler, K. Weber. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem.227, 105 (1998)., [473] O. T. Mäkelä, M. J. Lammi, H. Uusitalo, M. M. Hyttinen, E. Vuorio, H. J. Helminen, R. M. Tulamo. Ann. Rheum. Dis.62, 43 (2003).. 166Ho has been used for radioimmunotherapy (RIT) with labeled antibodies [474] H. Mohsin, F. Jia, G. Sivaguru, M. J. Hudson, T. D. Shelton, T. J. Hoffman, C. S. Cutler, A. R. Ketring, P. S. Athey, J. Simon, R. K. Frank, S. S. Jurisson, M. R. Lewis. Bioconjugate Chem.17, 485 (2006).. The 166Ho-chitosan complex (a linear polysaccharide, which is a long-chain molecule like cellulose that is used by the body for energy storage) is being used for hepatic (liver) cancer therapy [475] M. L. Smits, J. F. Nijsen, M. A. van den Bosch, M. G. Lam, M. A. Vente, J. E. Huijbregts, A. D. van het Schip, M. Elschot, W. Bult, H. W. de Jong, P. C. Meulenhoff, B. A. Zonnenberg. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res.29, 70 (2010).. 166Ho-labeled radiopharmaceuticals have been used for alleviating pain from bone metastases [443] International Atomic Energy Agency. Optimization of Production and Quality Control of Therapeutic Radionuclides and Radiopharmaceuticals, IAEA-TECDOC-1114, IAEA VIENNA (1999)., [473] O. T. Mäkelä, M. J. Lammi, H. Uusitalo, M. M. Hyttinen, E. Vuorio, H. J. Helminen, R. M. Tulamo. Ann. Rheum. Dis.62, 43 (2003)., [476] F. Melichar, M. Kropacek, M. Mirzajevova. J. Label. Compd. Radiopharm.46 (S1), S303 (2003). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jlcr.772..
166Ho microspheres have been used for intra-arterial radioembolization (treatment where radioactive particles are delivered to a tumor through the bloodstream) of liver metastases (Fig. IUPAC.67.1) [475] M. L. Smits, J. F. Nijsen, M. A. van den Bosch, M. G. Lam, M. A. Vente, J. E. Huijbregts, A. D. van het Schip, M. Elschot, W. Bult, H. W. de Jong, P. C. Meulenhoff, B. A. Zonnenberg. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res.29, 70 (2010).. 166Ho is paramagnetic and emits both beta and gamma radiation, which makes it ideal for radioembolization. These properties also enable the distribution of 166Ho microspheres to be visualized with magnetic resonance imaging and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) [475] M. L. Smits, J. F. Nijsen, M. A. van den Bosch, M. G. Lam, M. A. Vente, J. E. Huijbregts, A. D. van het Schip, M. Elschot, W. Bult, H. W. de Jong, P. C. Meulenhoff, B. A. Zonnenberg. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res.29, 70 (2010)..
The 166Ho-Patch is a specially designed radioactive skin patch that is used for external radiation of superficial skin cancers and Bowen’s disease in areas that are sensitive and difficult to treat by methods that are more destructive and have poor cosmetic results (i.e. areas of the face) [477] J. D. Lee, K. K. Park, M. G. Lee, E. H. Kim, K. J. Rhim, J. T. Lee, H. S. Yoo, Y. M. Kim, K. B. Park, J. R. Kim. J. Nucl. Med.38, 697 (1997)., [478] Y. L. Chung, J. D. Lee, D. Bang, J. B. Lee, K. B. Park, M. G. Lee. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging27, 842 (2000)..
Holmium chemistry is dominated by the +3 oxidation state. Holmium(III) oxide, Ho₂O₃, is the common oxide and is a starting material for many other salts. Holmium(III) chloride, HoCl₃, and holmium(III) nitrate, Ho(NO₃)₃, form hydrated salts that dissolve in water to give Ho³⁺ aquo complexes. The metal reacts with halogens to form trihalides and with acids to produce salts while evolving H₂. Lower oxidation states are not important in ordinary aqueous or solid-state chemistry.
See more information at the Holmium compound page.
Bulk holmium metal has low acute toxicity compared with many industrial metals, but powders and turnings are flammable and can irritate skin, eyes, and lungs. Soluble holmium salts should be handled as toxicologically insufficiently characterized rare-earth compounds. Natural holmium is stable and not a radiological hazard, although neutron activation can produce radioactive isotopes for research or medical studies.
Holmium occurs dispersed in rare-earth minerals such as monazite and xenotime, not as native metal. In weathering environments it behaves like other trivalent lanthanides, tending to bind to phosphates, carbonates, oxides, and clay surfaces rather than remaining highly mobile as a free ion. It has no known essential biological role, and environmental concentrations are normally very low except near rare-earth mining, processing, or waste streams.
Holmium is obtained as a minor by-product of rare-earth extraction, especially from heavy-rare-earth concentrates derived from ion-adsorption clays, xenotime, and some monazite sources. Separation depends on solvent extraction or ion-exchange methods because adjacent lanthanides have very similar chemistry. Demand is small and specialized, so supply is tied to broader rare-earth processing capacity rather than to dedicated holmium mining. Recycling is limited because most uses contain small dispersed amounts.
Occurs in gadolinite. Most often from monazite which is often 50% rare earth and typically 0.05% holmium.
Holmium is a rare cosmic element. Its stable isotope is produced mainly by slow and rapid neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and explosive stellar events, followed by radioactive decay chains that end at stable nuclei. In the Solar System it is concentrated with other refractory lithophile rare earths in rocky material and is depleted in volatile-rich reservoirs only by dilution, not by volatility.
- Holmium has one of the largest magnetic moments of any naturally occurring element.
- Its name comes from Holmia, the Latin name for Stockholm.
- Natural holmium is essentially all ¹⁶⁵Ho.
- Holmium oxide solutions and glasses give sharp optical absorption bands useful for calibration.
- The element was identified spectroscopically before it was isolated in relatively pure form.
图片
性质
物理性质
- 原子半径（经验值）
- 175 pm 比较所有元素的原子半径（经验值） →
- 共价半径
- 192 pm 比较所有元素的共价半径 →
- 范德华半径
- 216 pm 比较所有元素的范德华半径 →
- 密度
- 8800 kg/m³ 比较所有元素的密度 →
- 摩尔体积
- 0.0187 L/mol
- 标准温度和压力下的物相
- 固态 比较所有元素的标准温度和压力下的物相 →
- 熔点
- 1473.85 °C 比较所有元素的熔点 →
- 沸点
- 2699.85 °C 比较所有元素的沸点 →
- 比热容
- 0.165 J/(g·K) 比较所有元素的比热容 →
- 摩尔热容
- 27.15 J/(mol·K) 比较所有元素的摩尔热容 →
- 晶体结构
- 六方密堆积 比较所有元素的晶体结构 →
化学性质
- 电负性（鲍林）
- 1.23 比较所有元素的电负性（鲍林） →
- 电子亲和能
- 0.338 eV
- 第一电离能
- 6.0215 eV 比较所有元素的第一电离能 →
- 第二电离能
- 11.781041 eV 比较所有元素的第二电离能 →
- 第三电离能
- 22.790078 eV 比较所有元素的第三电离能 →
- 第四电离能
- 42.520146 eV 比较所有元素的第四电离能 →
- 第五电离能
- 63.90022 eV 比较所有元素的第五电离能 →
- 氧化态
- 0, +1, +2, +3 比较所有元素的氧化态 →
- 价电子
- 3 比较所有元素的价电子 →
- 电子排布
- [Xe] 6s2 4f11
热力学性质
- 熔化热
- 0.11608022 eV 比较所有元素的熔化热 →
- 汽化热
- 2.591076 eV 比较所有元素的汽化热 →
- 升华热
- 3.119656 eV
- 原子化热
- 3.119656 eV
- 原子化焓
- 3.11551 eV
核性质
- 质子
- 67 比较所有元素的质子 →
- 中子
- 98 比较所有元素的中子 →
- 已知同位素
- 39 比较所有元素的已知同位素 →
- 稳定同位素
- 1 比较所有元素的稳定同位素 →
- 最稳定同位素
- Ho-165
- 发现年份
- 1878
丰度
- 丰度（地壳）
- 1.3 mg/kg 比较所有元素的丰度（地壳） →
- 丰度（海洋）
- 2.2 × 10−7 mg/L 比较所有元素的丰度（海洋） →
晶体结构
- 晶格常数a
- 358 pm
电子结构
- 各电子层电子数
- 2, 8, 18, 29, 8, 2 比较所有元素的各电子层电子数 →
标识符
- CAS登记号
- 7440-60-0 比较所有元素的CAS登记号 →
- 谱项符号
- 4I°15/2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ho
- InChI Key
- KJZYNXUDTRRSPN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
电子排布 实测值
Ho: 4f¹¹ 6s²[Xe] 4f¹¹ 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹¹ 6s²原子模型
不同同位素的中子数、质量和稳定性不同，但中性原子的电子排布不变。
原子模型示意图，未按比例绘制。
原子指纹
发射 / 吸收光谱
同位素分布
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 165 稳定 | 164.9303288 ± 0.0000021 | 100.0000% | 稳定 |
物相 / 状态
原因: 低于熔点（1473.85 °C）1448.8 °C
示意图，未按比例绘制
相变点
相变能
在熔点熔化1 mol物质所需的能量
在沸点汽化1 mol物质所需的能量
在升华点升华1 mol物质所需的能量
密度
标准条件下
标准条件下
原子光谱
已显示10项，共67项。 按离子电荷升序排列。
收录能级 ?
| 离子 | 电荷 | 能级 |
|---|---|---|
| Ho I | 0 | 234 |
| Ho II | +1 | 55 |
| Ho III | +2 | 126 |
| Ho IV | +3 | 21 |
| Ho V | +4 | 2 |
| Ho VI | +5 | 2 |
| Ho VII | +6 | 2 |
| Ho VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ho IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ho X | +9 | 2 |
离子半径
| 电荷 | 配位 | 自旋 | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +3 | 6 | 暂无 | 90.10000000000001 pm |
| +3 | 8 | 暂无 | 101.49999999999999 pm |
| +3 | 9 | 暂无 | 107.2 pm |
| +3 | 10 | 暂无 | 112.00000000000001 pm |
化合物
同位素 (1)
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 | 衰变方式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 165 稳定 | 164.9303288 ± 0.0000021 | 100.0000% | 稳定 | stable |
扩展性质
共价半径（扩展）
- 共价半径（Pyykkö）
- 166 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，双键）
- 133 pm
范德华半径
- Alvarez
- 281 pm
- UFF
- 340.9 pm
- MM3
- 267 pm
原子半径与金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 273 pm
编号标度
- Mendeleev
- 33
- Pettifor
- 24
- Glawe
- 23
电负性标度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 3
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
极化率与色散
- 偶极极化率
- 156 a.u.
- 偶极极化率（不确定度）
- 10 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 2280 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema参数
- Miedema摩尔体积
- 18.76 cm3/mol
- Miedema电子密度
- 2
供应风险与经济性
- 生产集中度
- 97
- 相对供应风险
- 10
- 储量分布
- 50
- 政治稳定性（最大生产国）
- 24
- 政治稳定性（最大储量国）
- 24
相变与同素异形体
| 熔点 | 1745.15 K |
| 沸点 | 2973.15 K |
氧化态分类
高级参考数据
屏蔽常数 (13)
| n | 轨道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.3088 |
| 2 | p | 4.3332 |
| 2 | s | 17.5444 |
| 3 | d | 13.6531 |
| 3 | p | 20.2546 |
| 3 | s | 20.7649 |
| 4 | d | 35.3284 |
| 4 | f | 39.5304 |
| 4 | p | 32.4372 |
| 4 | s | 31.688 |
晶体半径详情 (4)
| 电荷 | CN | 自旋 | rcrystal (pm) | 来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | VI | 104.1 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VIII | 115.5 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | IX | 121.2 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | X | 126 |
同位素衰变方式 (57)
| 同位素 | 模式 | 强度 |
|---|---|---|
| 140 | p | — |
| 140 | B+ | — |
| 140 | B+p | — |
| 141 | p | 100% |
| 141 | B+ | — |
| 141 | B+p | — |
| 142 | B+ | 100% |
| 142 | B+p | — |
| 142 | p | 0% |
| 143 | B+ | — |
X射线散射因子 (514)
| 能量 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0.16762 |
| 10.1617 | — | 0.17164 |
| 10.3261 | — | 0.17576 |
| 10.4931 | — | 0.17997 |
| 10.6628 | — | 0.18429 |
| 10.8353 | — | 0.1887 |
| 11.0106 | — | 0.19366 |
| 11.1886 | — | 0.20086 |
| 11.3696 | — | 0.20833 |
| 11.5535 | — | 0.21608 |
补充数据
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.3 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
2.2×10-7 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Holmium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.