Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
标准原子量
72.63 u电子排布
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2熔点
938.25 °C沸点
2832.85 °C密度
5323.4 kg/m³氧化态
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4电负性（鲍林）
2.01第一电离能
7.899435 eV发现年份
1886原子半径
125 pm详细信息
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
图片
性质
物理性质
- 原子半径（经验值）
- 125 pm 比较所有元素的原子半径（经验值） →
- 共价半径
- 120 pm 比较所有元素的共价半径 →
- 范德华半径
- 211 pm 比较所有元素的范德华半径 →
- 金属半径
- 124 pm 比较所有元素的金属半径 →
- 密度
- 5323.4 kg/m³ 比较所有元素的密度 →
- 摩尔体积
- 0.0136 L/mol
- 标准温度和压力下的物相
- 固态 比较所有元素的标准温度和压力下的物相 →
- 熔点
- 938.25 °C 比较所有元素的熔点 →
- 沸点
- 2832.85 °C 比较所有元素的沸点 →
- 热导率
- 60.2 W/(m·K) 比较所有元素的热导率 →
- 比热容
- 0.32 J/(g·K) 比较所有元素的比热容 →
- 摩尔热容
- 23.222 J/(mol·K) 比较所有元素的摩尔热容 →
- 晶体结构
- 金刚石型立方 比较所有元素的晶体结构 →
化学性质
- 电负性（鲍林）
- 2.01 比较所有元素的电负性（鲍林） →
- 电负性（Allen）
- 1.994
- 电子亲和能
- 1.232 eV
- 第一电离能
- 7.899435 eV 比较所有元素的第一电离能 →
- 第二电离能
- 15.934665 eV 比较所有元素的第二电离能 →
- 第三电离能
- 34.057717 eV 比较所有元素的第三电离能 →
- 第四电离能
- 45.715657 eV 比较所有元素的第四电离能 →
- 第五电离能
- 90.500312 eV 比较所有元素的第五电离能 →
- 氧化态
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 比较所有元素的氧化态 →
- 价电子
- 4 比较所有元素的价电子 →
- 电子排布
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
热力学性质
- 临界点（温度）
- 9529 °C
- 熔化热
- 0.38285744 eV 比较所有元素的熔化热 →
- 汽化热
- 3.420221 eV 比较所有元素的汽化热 →
- 升华热
- 3.907343 eV
- 原子化热
- 3.907343 eV
- 原子化焓
- 3.855522 eV
核性质
- 质子
- 32 比较所有元素的质子 →
- 中子
- 42 比较所有元素的中子 →
- 已知同位素
- 33 比较所有元素的已知同位素 →
- 稳定同位素
- 4 比较所有元素的稳定同位素 →
- 最稳定同位素
- Ge-74
- 发现年份
- 1886
丰度
- 丰度（地壳）
- 1.5 mg/kg 比较所有元素的丰度（地壳） →
- 丰度（海洋）
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L 比较所有元素的丰度（海洋） →
晶体结构
- 晶格常数a
- 566 pm
电子结构
- 各电子层电子数
- 2, 8, 18, 4 比较所有元素的各电子层电子数 →
标识符
- CAS登记号
- 7440-56-4 比较所有元素的CAS登记号 →
- 谱项符号
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- InChI Key
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
电子排布 实测值
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²原子模型
不同同位素的中子数、质量和稳定性不同，但中性原子的电子排布不变。
原子模型示意图，未按比例绘制。
原子指纹
发射 / 吸收光谱
同位素分布
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 稳定 | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% | 稳定 |
| 72 稳定 | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% | 稳定 |
| 73 稳定 | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% | 稳定 |
| 74 稳定 | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% | 稳定 |
物相 / 状态
原因: 低于熔点（938.25 °C）913.3 °C
示意图，未按比例绘制
相变点
相变能
在熔点熔化1 mol物质所需的能量
在沸点汽化1 mol物质所需的能量
在升华点升华1 mol物质所需的能量
密度
标准条件下
标准条件下
高级
原子光谱
已显示10项，共32项。 按离子电荷升序排列。
收录谱线 ?
| 离子 | 电荷 | 谱线总数 | 跃迁概率 | 能级标记 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
收录能级 ?
| 离子 | 电荷 | 能级 |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
离子半径
| 电荷 | 配位 | 自旋 | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | 暂无 | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | 暂无 | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | 暂无 | 53 pm |
化合物
同位素 (4)
| 质量数 | 原子质量（u） | 天然丰度 | 半衰期 | 衰变方式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 稳定 | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% ± 0.2700% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 72 稳定 | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% ± 0.3200% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 73 稳定 | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% ± 0.1200% | 稳定 | stable | |
| 74 稳定 | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% ± 0.2000% | 稳定 | stable |
谱线
已显示50项，共57项。 默认仅显示具有实测强度的谱线。
| 波长（nm） | 强度 | 电离级 | 类型 | 跃迁 | 准确度 | 来源 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | 实测值 | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 实测值 | NIST |
扩展性质
共价半径（扩展）
- 共价半径（Pyykkö）
- 121 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，双键）
- 111 pm
- 共价半径（Pyykkö，三键）
- 114 pm
范德华半径
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
原子半径与金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 234 pm
- 金属半径（C12）
- 144 pm
编号标度
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
电负性标度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
极化率与色散
- 偶极极化率
- 40 a.u.
- 偶极极化率（不确定度）
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema参数
- Miedema摩尔体积
- 9.87 cm3/mol
- Miedema电子密度
- 3
供应风险与经济性
- 生产集中度
- 67
- 相对供应风险
- 8
- 政治稳定性（最大生产国）
- 24
相变与同素异形体
| 熔点 | 1211.4 K |
| 沸点 | 3106.15 K |
| 临界点（温度） | 9802.15 K |
氧化态分类
高级参考数据
屏蔽常数 (8)
| n | 轨道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.7063 |
| 2 | p | 3.9178 |
| 2 | s | 8.6352 |
| 3 | d | 15.7487 |
| 3 | p | 14.9864 |
| 3 | s | 14.2103 |
| 4 | p | 25.2196 |
| 4 | s | 23.9564 |
晶体半径详情 (3)
| 电荷 | CN | 自旋 | rcrystal (pm) | 来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
同位素衰变方式 (50)
| 同位素 | 模式 | 强度 |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0.2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
X射线散射因子 (506)
| 能量 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3.01183 |
| 10.1617 | — | 3.05548 |
| 10.3261 | — | 3.09976 |
| 10.4931 | — | 3.14468 |
| 10.6628 | — | 3.19025 |
| 10.8353 | — | 3.21825 |
| 11.0106 | — | 3.20755 |
| 11.1886 | — | 3.19689 |
| 11.3696 | — | 3.18626 |
| 11.5535 | — | 3.17568 |
补充数据
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.