Carbon (C)
nonmetalSolid
Nguyên tử khối chuẩn
12,011 u [12,0096, 12,0116]Cấu hình electron
[He] 2s2 2p2Nhiệt độ nóng chảy
3549,85 °CNhiệt độ sôi
3824,85 °CKhối lượng riêng
2267 kg/m³Trạng thái oxi hóa
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4Độ âm điện (Pauling)
2,55Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 1)
11,260288 eVNăm phát hiện
1797Bán kính nguyên tử
70 pmChi tiết
Carbon is a nonmetal in group 14 and the defining element of organic chemistry. Its small atoms form strong covalent bonds with carbon and many other elements, allowing chains, rings, networks, and multiple bonds of great diversity. It occurs naturally as graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon-rich materials, carbonate minerals, fossil carbon, dissolved carbon species, and as a central element in living matter.
Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic table. It has three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and fullerite. Carbon-14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself, and a wide variety of other elements.
The name derives from the Latin carbo for "charcoal". It was known in prehistoric times in the form of charcoal and soot. In 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant proved that diamond is pure carbon.
Carbon, the sixth most abundant element in the universe, has been known since ancient times. Carbon is most commonly obtained from coal deposits, although it usually must be processed into a form suitable for commercial use. Three naturally occurring allotropes of carbon are known to exist: amorphous, graphite and diamond.
From the Latin word carbo: charcoal. Carbon, an element of prehistoric discovery, is very widely distributed in nature. It is found in abundance in the sun, stars, comets, and atmospheres of most planets. Carbon in the form of microscopic diamonds is found in some meteorites.
Natural diamonds are found in kimberlite of ancient volcanic "pipes," found in South Africa, Arkansas, and elsewhere. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. About 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now made synthetically.
The energy of the sun and stars can be attributed at least in part to the well-known carbon-nitrogen cycle.
Pure carbon has several allotropes. Graphite is a soft, black to steel-gray, opaque solid with a metallic luster and layered structure. Diamond is a transparent, very hard crystalline solid when pure, though impurities can color it. Amorphous carbon materials are typically black powders or porous solids.
Graphite is used in electrodes, refractories, lubricants, foundry materials, pencils, brake linings, and lithium-ion battery anodes. Diamond is valued as a gemstone and is used in cutting, grinding, drilling, and heat-spreading applications. Carbon black reinforces rubber and pigments inks, coatings, and plastics. Activated carbon is used for adsorption in water treatment, gas purification, and solvent recovery. Carbon fibers provide high strength and low mass in composites.
Amorphous carbon is formed when a material containing carbon is burned without enough oxygen for it to burn completely. This black soot, also known as lampblack, gas black, channel black or carbon black, is used to make inks, paints and rubber products. It can also be pressed into shapes and is used to form the cores of most dry cell batteries, among other things.
Graphite, one of the softest materials known, is a form of carbon that is primarily used as a lubricant. Although it does occur naturally, most commercial graphite is produced by treating petroleum coke, a black tar residue remaining after the refinement of crude oil, in an oxygen-free oven. Naturally occurring graphite occurs in two forms, alpha and beta. These two forms have identical physical properties but different crystal structures. All artificially produced graphite is of the alpha type. In addition to its use as a lubricant, graphite, in a form known as coke, is used in large amounts in the production of steel. Coke is made by heating soft coal in an oven without allowing oxygen to mix with it. Although commonly called lead, the black material used in pencils is actually graphite.
Diamond, the third naturally occurring form of carbon, is one of the hardest substances known. Although naturally occurring diamond is typically used for jewelry, most commercial quality diamonds are artificially produced. These small diamonds are made by squeezing graphite under high temperatures and pressures for several days or weeks and are primarily used to make things like diamond tipped saw blades. Although they posses very different physical properties, graphite and diamond differ only in their crystal structure.
A fourth allotrope of carbon, known as white carbon, was produced in 1969. It is a transparent material that can split a single beam of light into two beams, a property known as birefringence. Very little is known about this form of carbon.
Large molecules consisting only of carbon, known as buckminsterfullerenes, or buckyballs, have recently been discovered and are currently the subject of much scientific interest. A single buckyball consists of 60 or 70 carbon atoms (C60 or C70) linked together in a structure that looks like a soccer ball. They can trap other atoms within their framework, appear to be capable of withstanding great pressures and have magnetic and superconductive properties.
Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon with a half-life of 5,730 years, is used to find the age of formerly living things through a process known as radiocarbon dating. The theory behind carbon dating is fairly simple. Scientists know that a small amount of naturally occurring carbon is carbon-14. Although carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 through beta decay, the amount of carbon-14 in the environment remains constant because new carbon-14 is always being created in the upper atmosphere by cosmic rays. Living things tend to ingest materials that contain carbon, so the percentage of carbon-14 within living things is the same as the percentage of carbon-14 in the environment. Once an organism dies, it no longer ingests much of anything. The carbon-14 within that organism is no longer replaced and the percentage of carbon-14 begins to decrease as it decays. By measuring the percentage of carbon-14 in the remains of an organism, and by assuming that the natural abundance of carbon-14 has remained constant over time, scientists can estimate when that organism died. For example, if the concentration of carbon-14 in the remains of an organism is half of the natural concentration of carbon-14, a scientist would estimate that the organism died about 5,730 years ago, the half-life of carbon-14.
There are nearly ten million known carbon compounds and an entire branch of chemistry, known as organic chemistry, is devoted to their study. Many carbon compounds are essential for life as we know it. Some of the most common carbon compounds are: carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon disulfide (CS2), chloroform (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), acetylene (C2H2), benzene (C6H6), ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) and acetic acid (CH3COOH).
Isotopes in Biology
Because of above-ground nuclear bomb testing, the neutrons released reacted with CO2 to increase atmospheric 14C via the 14N (n, p) 14C reaction, and 14C started rising in about 1955 (Fig. IUPAC.6.1) and reached a peak in the mid-1960s [59] Q. Hua, M. Barbetti, A. Z. Rakowski. Radiocarbon55, 2059 (2013).. With the curtailment of above-ground nuclear testing in the 1960s, the atmospheric 14C concentration has since been decreasing exponentially (Fig. IUPAC.6.1). This variation in 14C concentration is used to establish when cells in biology were born and how quickly they are renewed [60] K. L. Spalding, R. D. Bhardwaj, B. A. Buchholz, H. Druid, J. Frisén. Cell122, 133 (2005).. This technique is commonly called carbon-14 bomb pulse biology and it has provided information on the age of cells and their regeneration. Figure 4.6.2 shows the average age of selected cells in a 30-year-old human.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of carbon possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. Carbon in natural terrestrial materials shows a substantial variation in isotopic abundance (Fig. IUPAC.6.3), providing many different ways of distinguishing sources of materials and processes affecting them [13] M. W. Wieser, T. B. Coplen. Pure Appl Chem.83, 359 (2011).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) in tree rings and in CO2 trapped in ice cores have been used to study causes of variations in atmospheric CO2 levels [66] RealClimate. How Do We Know That Recent CO2 Increases Are Due to Human Activities? RealClimate (2014), Feb. 22; http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2004/12/how-do-we-know-that-recent-cosub2sub-increases-are-due-to-human-activities-updated/.. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) and in the 14C concentration of surface ocean waters have been used to trace the incorporation and movement of atmospheric CO2 in the ocean [66] RealClimate. How Do We Know That Recent CO2 Increases Are Due to Human Activities? RealClimate (2014), Feb. 22; http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2004/12/how-do-we-know-that-recent-cosub2sub-increases-are-due-to-human-activities-updated/..
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of biological products can be observed using isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to detect adulteration (the addition of inferior ingredients) in honey and other food products.
The isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) can fluctuate between carbon sources, for example C3 plants (found in temperate climates and which use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make a 3-carbon molecule during photosynthesis — examples include rice, potatoes, tomatoes, and sugar beets), C4 plants (found in hot climates and which use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make a 4-carbon molecule during photosynthesis — examples include corn and sugar cane), animal carbon, atmospheric CO2, etc. This commonly makes it possible to detect whether these different carbon sources have been mixed by using isotope or mass balance to distinguish, for example, between beet sugar and cane sugar. Complications in source identification can arise with plants that open stomata at night to collect carbon dioxide to use a third mechanism to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide (CAM or crassulacean acid metabolism). The isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of CAM plants overlaps that of C3 or C4 plants — examples include pineapples and jade plants. The following adulterations are commonly detected using stable carbon isotope IRMS:
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of honey are used to detect the addition (and potential adulteration) of high fructose corn syrup, corn, or sugar cane [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of fruit juice have been used to detect the addition of a sugar [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of natural vanilla extract have been used to detect the addition of artificial vanillin or p-hydroxybenzaldehyde [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of beer are used to detect C4 carbon, which would indicate that a beer company may have added ingredients that are not traditionally used in brewing beer. Therefore, this ratio is used to detect the misrepresentation of a product as being pure [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002)..
Stable carbon IRMS has been used to determine if the botanical origin of an alcoholic spirit has been mislabeled and if chaptalization (the process of adding sugar to increase the alcoholic content) of wine has occurred [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).. 14C scintillation counting has been used to determine the age of wine and alcoholic spirits [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of urine has been used to determine if steroids in urine are natural or of synthetic origin. These measurements enable anti-doping laboratories to perfect their methods for detecting steroid doping in athletes [69] B. D. Ahrens, A. W. Butch. Drug Test Anal.5, 534 (2013)., [70] E. Bulska, D. Gorczyca, I. Zalewska, A. Pokrywka, D. Kwiatkowska. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.106, 159 (2015)., [71] A. Casilli, T. Piper, F. A. de Oliveira, M. Costa Padilha, H. Marcelo Pereira, M. Thevis, F. R. de Aquino Neto. Drug Test Anal.8, 1204 (2016).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of marijuana can provide information to determine if the plants were grown “inside” a building or greenhouse or were “open grown” (Fig. IUPAC.6.4). Plant carbon isotopic compositions are controlled by atmospheric CO2 and the supply and demand of CO2 in photosynthesis (the process used by plants to convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy). “Open grown” plants are grown in an area that is well ventilated and receives natural CO2. In contrast, plants grown “inside” receive supplemented CO2 and the photosynthesis process is more confined. Additionally, CO2 from a tank of compressed gas used to augment atmospheric CO2 to increase the growth of marijuana plants is commonly highly depleted in 13C as a refinery by-product. These differences change the carbon isotope ratios of the plants and the ratios vary enough to enable the determination of the growing and cultivation process of marijuana [72] E. K. Shibuya, J. E. Souza Sarkis, O. N. Neto, M. Z. Moreira, R. L. Victoria. Forensic Sci. Int.160, 35 (2006)., [73] J. B. West, J. M. Hurley, J. R. Ehleringer. J Forensic Sci.54, 84 (2009)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
Radioactive 14C is the basis for the radiocarbon dating method to determine the ages of carbon-bearing materials. 14C is formed naturally in the atmosphere by cosmic-ray interactions and was also released by above-ground, nuclear weapons testing (Fig. IUPAC.6.1). Atmospheric 14C is incorporated into plants, animals, soils, groundwater, and ocean water, and it decays with a half-life of ~5700 years. This makes it useful for dating objects, such as archaeological remains and water masses in oceans and aquifers, on time scales ranging from hundreds of years to tens of thousands of years [15] I. D. Clark, P. Fritz. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology, p. 328, Lewis Publishers, New York (1997).. Plants and animals living since the 1950s can be identified by bomb-peak 14C in their cells.
Isotopes in Medicine
14C is used to create isotopically labeled drugs to study their uptake and metabolism in humans [75] J. Peterson, M. McDonell, L. Haroun, F. Monette, R. D. Hildebrand, A. Taboas. Radiological and Chemical Fact Sheets to Support Health Risk Analyses for Contaminated Areas, Prepared by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Science Division in collaboration with U.S. Department of Energy, Richland Operations Office and Chicago Operations Office (2014), Feb. 22; http://www.remm.nlm.gov/ANL_ContaminantFactSheets_All_070418.pdf., [76] GI & Liver Laboratory at Centre for Liver & Digestive Disorders, The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. GI & Liver Laboratory Patient Leaflet., [77] S. L. Kitson. Tracking Human Metabolism with Carbon-14, Drug Discovery and Development (2014), Feb. 23; http://www.dddmag.com/articles/2013/02/tracking-human-metabolism-carbon-14.. 13C is used in breath tests to detect Helicobacter pylori bacteria (bacteria in the stomach linked to ulcers), which can cause cancers [78] Medical Health Tests. Reasons, Procedure and Preparation for C Urea Breath Test-Carbon Urea Breath Test, Medical Health Tests (2014), Feb. 23; http://www.medicalhealthtests.com/urea-breath-test/c-urea-breath-test.html..
Carbon commonly has oxidation states from −4 to +4, with +4 in carbon dioxide (CO₂) and −4 in methane (CH₄). Its chemistry includes hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, polymers, carbohydrates, proteins, and many other organic families. Important inorganic compounds include carbon monoxide (CO), carbonates such as calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), carbides such as silicon carbide (SiC), and cyanides such as sodium cyanide (NaCN). Graphene, fullerenes, and nanotubes are covalent carbon allotropes rather than compounds.
Carbon is found free in nature in three allotropic forms: graphite, diamond, and fullerines. A fourth form, known as "white" carbon, is now thought to exist. Ceraphite is one of the softest known materials while diamond is one of the hardest.
Graphite exists in two forms: alpha and beta. These have identical physical properties, except for their crystal structure. Naturally occurring graphites are reported to contain as much as 30% of the rhombohedral (beta) form, whereas synthetic materials contain only the alpha form. The hexagonal alpha type can be converted to the beta by mechanical treatment, and the beta form reverts to the alpha on heating it above 1000°C.
In 1969 a new allotropic form of carbon was produced during the sublimation of pyrolytic graphite at low pressures. Under free-vaporization conditions above ~2550°K, "white" carbon forms as small transparent crystals on the edges of the planes of graphite. The interplanar spacings of "white" carbon are identical to those of carbon form noted in the graphite gneiss from the Ries (meteroritic) Crater of Germany. "White" carbon is a transparent birefringent material. Little information is presently available about this allotrope.
In combination, carbon is found as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the earth and dissolved in all natural waters. It is a component of great rock masses in the form of carbonates of calcium (limestone), magnesium, and iron. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are chiefly hydrocarbons.
Carbon is unique among the elements in the vast number and variety of compounds it can form. With hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements, it forms a very large number of compounds, carbon atom often being linked to another carbon atom. There are close to ten million known carbon compounds, many thousands of which are vital to organic and life processes.
Without carbon, the basis for life would be impossible. While it has been thought that silicon might take the place of carbon in forming a host of similar compounds, it is now not possible to form stable compounds with very long chains of silicon atoms. The atmosphere of Mars contains 96.2% CO2. Some of the most important compounds of carbon are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon disulfide (CS2), chloroform (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), acetylene (C2H2), benzene (C6H6), acetic acid (CH3COOH), and their derivatives.
See more information at the Carbon compound page.
Elemental diamond and graphite are chemically inert under ordinary handling, but fine carbon dust can irritate the lungs and may present a combustible dust hazard. Carbon monoxide (CO) is highly toxic because it binds hemoglobin strongly and impairs oxygen transport. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is not very toxic chemically but can displace oxygen in confined spaces. Radioactive ¹⁴C is a low-energy beta emitter and is controlled as an internal exposure hazard.
Carbon cycles through the atmosphere, oceans, rocks, soils, and living organisms. Photosynthesis fixes carbon dioxide (CO₂) into biomass, while respiration, decay, combustion, and volcanism return carbon to air and water. Carbonate minerals are a major long-term sink, and dissolved inorganic carbon buffers seawater chemistry. Human release of fossil carbon has altered atmospheric CO₂ levels and the global carbon cycle.
Carbon is not a single commodity market because its forms have very different supply chains. Natural graphite is mined and beneficiated, while synthetic graphite is made from petroleum coke or other carbon-rich precursors at high temperature. Industrial diamond is produced mainly by high-pressure high-temperature synthesis or chemical vapor deposition, with natural diamond remaining important for gems. Carbon black is manufactured by controlled incomplete combustion or thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons. Activated carbon is made from coal, wood, coconut shell, or other carbonaceous feedstocks, and recycling is significant for some graphite and carbon-fiber applications but limited by quality requirements.
Made by burning organic compounds with insufficient oxygen.
Carbon is one of the more abundant elements in the universe and is made chiefly by helium fusion in stars through the triple-alpha process. It is found in interstellar molecules, dust grains, carbon-rich stars, meteorites, comets, planetary atmospheres, and organic material in small Solar System bodies. Its ability to form stable complex molecules makes it central to known planetary chemistry.
- Graphite conducts electricity well within its layers but much less well perpendicular to them.
- Diamond can burn in oxygen at high temperature to form carbon dioxide (CO₂).
- Natural diamond is metastable at Earth-surface conditions, but conversion to graphite is extremely slow.
- Carbon has two stable isotopes, ¹²C and ¹³C, and the cosmogenic radioisotope ¹⁴C is used in dating once-living materials
- Graphene is a single atomic layer of carbon arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
- Activated carbon works mainly by high internal surface area rather than by chemical neutralization.
Hình ảnh
Tính chất
Vật lý
- Bán kính nguyên tử (thực nghiệm)
- 70 pm So sánh Bán kính nguyên tử (thực nghiệm) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị
- 76 pm So sánh Bán kính cộng hóa trị của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Bán kính van der Waals
- 170 pm So sánh Bán kính van der Waals của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Khối lượng riêng
- 2267 kg/m³ So sánh Khối lượng riêng của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Thể tích mol
- 0,0053 L/mol
- Pha ở STP
- Rắn So sánh Pha ở STP của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt độ nóng chảy
- 3549,85 °C So sánh Nhiệt độ nóng chảy của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt độ sôi
- 3824,85 °C So sánh Nhiệt độ sôi của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Độ dẫn nhiệt
- 1,59 W/(m·K) So sánh Độ dẫn nhiệt của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt dung riêng
- 0,709 J/(g·K) So sánh Nhiệt dung riêng của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt dung mol
- 8,517 J/(mol·K) So sánh Nhiệt dung mol của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Cấu trúc tinh thể
- Lập phương kiểu kim cương So sánh Cấu trúc tinh thể của tất cả nguyên tố →
Hóa học
- Độ âm điện (Pauling)
- 2,55 So sánh Độ âm điện (Pauling) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Độ âm điện (Allen)
- 2,544
- Ái lực electron
- 1,2621 eV
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 1)
- 11,260288 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 1) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 2)
- 24,383227 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 2) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 3)
- 47,887945 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 3) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 4)
- 64,493742 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 4) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 5)
- 392,09191 eV So sánh Năng lượng ion hóa (lần 5) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Trạng thái oxi hóa
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 So sánh Trạng thái oxi hóa của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Electron hóa trị
- 4 So sánh Electron hóa trị của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Các dạng thù hình
- ["graphite"]
- Cấu hình electron
- [He] 2s2 2p2
Nhiệt động lực học
- Điểm ba (nhiệt độ)
- 4489 °C
- Điểm ba (áp suất)
- 1,03e+7 Pa
- Nhiệt hóa hơi
- 7,410478 eV So sánh Nhiệt hóa hơi của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Nhiệt thăng hoa
- 7,42789 eV
- Nhiệt nguyên tử hóa
- 7,42789 eV
- Enthalpy nguyên tử hóa
- 7,42986 eV
Hạt nhân
- Proton
- 6 So sánh Proton của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Neutron
- 6 So sánh Neutron của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Các đồng vị đã biết
- 16 So sánh Các đồng vị đã biết của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Đồng vị bền
- 2 So sánh Đồng vị bền của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Đồng vị bền nhất
- C-12
- Năm phát hiện
- 1797
Độ phổ biến
- Độ phổ biến (vỏ Trái Đất)
- 200 mg/kg So sánh Độ phổ biến (vỏ Trái Đất) của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Độ phổ biến (đại dương)
- 28 mg/L So sánh Độ phổ biến (đại dương) của tất cả nguyên tố →
Cấu trúc tinh thể
- Hằng số mạng a
- 357 pm
Cấu trúc electron
- Số electron trong mỗi lớp
- 2, 4 So sánh Số electron trong mỗi lớp của tất cả nguyên tố →
Mã định danh
- Số CAS
- 7440-44-0 So sánh Số CAS của tất cả nguyên tố →
- Ký hiệu số hạng
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/C
- Khóa InChI
- OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Cấu hình electron Đo đạc
C: 2s² 2p²[He] 2s² 2p²1s² 2s² 2p²Mô hình nguyên tử
Các đồng vị khác nhau về số neutron, khối lượng và độ bền — không khác nhau về cấu hình electron của nguyên tử trung hòa.
Mô hình nguyên tử minh họa, không theo tỷ lệ.
Dấu vân tay nguyên tử
Phổ phát xạ / hấp thụ
Phân bố đồng vị
| Số khối | Khối lượng nguyên tử (u) | Độ phổ biến tự nhiên | Chu kỳ bán rã |
|---|---|---|---|
| 12 Bền | 12 | 98,9300% | Bền |
| 13 Bền | 13,00335483507 ± 0,00000000023 | 1,0700% | Bền |
Pha / Trạng thái
Lý do: thấp hơn nhiệt độ thăng hoa (3824,85 °C) một lượng 3799,8 °C
Sơ đồ minh họa, không theo tỷ lệ
Điểm chuyển pha
Năng lượng chuyển pha
Năng lượng cần để hóa hơi 1 mol tại nhiệt độ sôi
Năng lượng cần để làm thăng hoa 1 mol tại nhiệt độ thăng hoa
Khối lượng riêng
Ở điều kiện chuẩn
Ở điều kiện chuẩn
Nâng cao
Phổ nguyên tử
Đang hiển thị 10 trên 11. Sắp xếp theo điện tích ion (tăng dần).
Dữ liệu vạch phổ ?
| Ion | Điện tích | Tổng số vạch | Xác suất chuyển mức | Ký hiệu mức năng lượng |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| C I | 0 | 2102 | 1616 | 2102 |
| 12C I Đồng vị | 0 | 89 | 0 | 89 |
| 13C I Đồng vị | 0 | 89 | 0 | 89 |
| 12C II Đồng vị | +1 | 187 | 0 | 187 |
| 14C II Đồng vị | +1 | 187 | 0 | 187 |
| C II | +1 | 1605 | 1433 | 1605 |
| 13C II Đồng vị | +1 | 187 | 0 | 187 |
| C III | +2 | 882 | 878 | 878 |
| C IV | +3 | 259 | 224 | 255 |
| C V | +4 | 149 | 146 | 147 |
Dữ liệu mức năng lượng ?
| Ion | Điện tích | Mức năng lượng |
|---|---|---|
| C I | 0 | 435 |
| 12C I Đồng vị | 0 | 33 |
| 13C I Đồng vị | 0 | 33 |
| 12C II Đồng vị | +1 | 36 |
| 14C II Đồng vị | +1 | 36 |
| C II | +1 | 415 |
| 13C II Đồng vị | +1 | 36 |
| C III | +2 | 201 |
| C IV | +3 | 107 |
| C V | +4 | 156 |
Bán kính ion
| Điện tích | Phối trí | Spin | Bán kính |
|---|---|---|---|
| +4 | 4 | Không có | 15 pm |
| +4 | 6 | Không có | 16 pm |
Hợp chất
Đồng vị (2)
Carbon has seven isotopes. In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights. Carbon-14, an isotope with a half-life of 5715 years, has been widely used to date such materials as wood, archaeological specimens, etc.
| Số khối | Khối lượng nguyên tử (u) | Độ phổ biến tự nhiên | Chu kỳ bán rã | Kiểu phân rã | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12 Bền | 12 | 98,9300% ± 0,0800% | Bền | stable | |
| 13 Bền | 13,00335483507 ± 0,00000000023 | 1,0700% ± 0,0800% | Bền | stable |
Vạch phổ
Đang hiển thị 50 trên 993. Theo mặc định, chỉ hiển thị các vạch phổ có cường độ đã được đo.
| Bước sóng (nm) | Cường độ | Bậc ion hóa | Loại | Chuyển mức | Độ chính xác | Nguồn | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 505.214927 nm | 160000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.4p 1D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 538.033014 nm | 120000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.4p 1P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 711.31656 nm | 110000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3F* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 493.202524 nm | 73000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.4p 1S | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 477.173374 nm | 69000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 711.697758 nm | 45000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 658.76211 nm | 40000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.4d 1P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 579.311495 nm | 38000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 711.96559 nm | 37000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 580.059993 nm | 35000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 600.1123 nm | 35000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 477.589266 nm | 34000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 437.13814 nm | 33000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.5p 1P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 711.145795 nm | 32000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3F* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 682.814076 nm | 27000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.4d 1D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 504.149039 nm | 25000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[5/2] | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 477.002376 nm | 24000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 600.6012 nm | 23000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5d 3D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 665.55294 nm | 20000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.5s 1P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 710.011312 nm | 19000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 566.894 nm | 18000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.5d 1P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 596.933151 nm | 18000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 708.782188 nm | 18000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 402.94119 nm | 16000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 601.64487 nm | 16000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5d 3F* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 473.426281 nm | 15000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 481.737213 nm | 15000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3S | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 579.446608 nm | 15000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 748.344451 nm | 15000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3S → 2s2.2p.4d 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 406.52425 nm | 14000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 580.52017 nm | 14000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 601.4833 nm | 14000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 710.89263 nm | 14000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 400.9928 nm | 13000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.6p 1P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 422.83269 nm | 13000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.5p 1S | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 447.85821 nm | 13000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<1/2>).5f 2[5/2] | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 504.012903 nm | 12000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 601.0669 nm | 12000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 406.4264 nm | 11000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 639.7965 nm | 11000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3S → 2s2.2p.6s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 666.3043 nm | 11000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3P → 2s2.2p.5d 3D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 667.1849 nm | 11000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3P → 2s2.2p.6s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 403.180216 nm | 10000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 482.679468 nm | 10000 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3S | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 598.903753 nm | 10000 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3D | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 707.649944 nm | 9900 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3D* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 402.284321 nm | 9700 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 555.1578 nm | 9600 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.7s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 600.7173 nm | 9600 | C I | emission | 2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P* | Đo đạc | NIST | |
| 502.492938 nm | 9400 | C I | emission | 2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<3/2>).4f 2[7/2] | Đo đạc | NIST |
Tính chất mở rộng
Bán kính cộng hóa trị (mở rộng)
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Pyykkö)
- 75 pm
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Pyykkö, liên kết đôi)
- 67 pm
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Pyykkö, liên kết ba)
- 60 pm
- Bán kính cộng hóa trị (Bragg)
- 77 pm
Bán kính van der Waals
- Bondi
- 170 pm
- Batsanov
- 170 pm
- Alvarez
- 177 pm
- UFF
- 385,1 pm
- MM3
- 204 pm
- Dreiding
- 389,83 pm
- Rowland–Taylor
- 177 pm
Bán kính nguyên tử và kim loại
- Bán kính nguyên tử (Rahm)
- 190 pm
- Bán kính kim loại (C12)
- 86 pm
Các thang đánh số
- Mendeleev
- 87
- Pettifor
- 95
- Glawe
- 87
Các thang độ âm điện
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 6
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 7
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 6
Độ phân cực hóa và tán sắc
- Độ phân cực hóa lưỡng cực
- 11,3 a.u.
- Độ phân cực hóa lưỡng cực (độ không đảm bảo)
- 0,2 a.u.
- C₆
- 46,6 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 47,9 Ha·Bohr6
Thông số Miedema
- Thể tích mol Miedema
- 3,26 cm3/mol
- Mật độ electron Miedema
- 6
Rủi ro nguồn cung và kinh tế
- Mức độ tập trung sản xuất
- 46
- Rủi ro nguồn cung tương đối
- 5
- Phân bố trữ lượng
- 28
- Ổn định chính trị (quốc gia sản xuất lớn nhất)
- 24
- Ổn định chính trị (quốc gia có trữ lượng lớn nhất)
- 57
Chuyển pha và các dạng thù hình
| Nhiệt độ sôi | 4098,15 K |
| Điểm ba (nhiệt độ) | 4762,15 K |
| Điểm ba (áp suất) | 10300 kPa |
Phân loại trạng thái oxi hóa
Dữ liệu tham khảo chuyên sâu
Hằng số chắn (3)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0,3273 |
| 2 | p | 2,8642 |
| 2 | s | 2,7834 |
Chi tiết bán kính tinh thể (3)
| Điện tích | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Nguồn gốc |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | III | 6 | ||
| 4 | IV | 29 | Pauling's (1960) crystal radius, | |
| 4 | VI | 30 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, |
Các kiểu phân rã đồng vị (27)
| Đồng vị | Chế độ | Cường độ |
|---|---|---|
| 8 | 2p | 100% |
| 9 | B+ | 100% |
| 9 | B+p | 7,5% |
| 9 | B+A | 38,4% |
| 10 | B+ | 100% |
| 11 | B+ | 100% |
| 14 | B- | 100% |
| 15 | B- | 100% |
| 16 | B- | 100% |
| 16 | B-n | 99% |
Hệ số tán xạ tia X (502)
| Năng lượng (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0,80688 |
| 10,1617 | — | 0,85152 |
| 10,3261 | — | 0,89863 |
| 10,4931 | — | 0,94834 |
| 10,6628 | — | 1,0008 |
| 10,8353 | — | 1,05755 |
| 11,0106 | — | 1,12167 |
| 11,1886 | — | 1,18968 |
| 11,3696 | — | 1,26181 |
| 11,5535 | — | 1,33832 |
Dữ liệu bổ sung
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
2.00×102 milligrams per kilogram
Tài liệu tham khảo (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
2.8×101 milligrams per liter
Tài liệu tham khảo (1)
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of biological products can be observed using isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to detect adulteration (the addition of inferior ingredients) in honey and other food products.
The isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) can fluctuate between carbon sources, for example C3 plants (found in temperate climates and which use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make a 3-carbon molecule during photosynthesis — examples include rice, potatoes, tomatoes, and sugar beets), C4 plants (found in hot climates and which use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make a 4-carbon molecule during photosynthesis — examples include corn and sugar cane), animal carbon, atmospheric CO2, etc. This commonly makes it possible to detect whether these different carbon sources have been mixed by using isotope or mass balance to distinguish, for example, between beet sugar and cane sugar. Complications in source identification can arise with plants that open stomata at night to collect carbon dioxide to use a third mechanism to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide (CAM or crassulacean acid metabolism). The isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of CAM plants overlaps that of C3 or C4 plants — examples include pineapples and jade plants. The following adulterations are commonly detected using stable carbon isotope IRMS:
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of honey are used to detect the addition (and potential adulteration) of high fructose corn syrup, corn, or sugar cane [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of fruit juice have been used to detect the addition of a sugar [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of natural vanilla extract have been used to detect the addition of artificial vanillin or p-hydroxybenzaldehyde [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..
–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of beer are used to detect C4 carbon, which would indicate that a beer company may have added ingredients that are not traditionally used in brewing beer. Therefore, this ratio is used to detect the misrepresentation of a product as being pure [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002)..
Stable carbon IRMS has been used to determine if the botanical origin of an alcoholic spirit has been mislabeled and if chaptalization (the process of adding sugar to increase the alcoholic content) of wine has occurred [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).. 14C scintillation counting has been used to determine the age of wine and alcoholic spirits [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of urine has been used to determine if steroids in urine are natural or of synthetic origin. These measurements enable anti-doping laboratories to perfect their methods for detecting steroid doping in athletes [69] B. D. Ahrens, A. W. Butch. Drug Test Anal.5, 534 (2013)., [70] E. Bulska, D. Gorczyca, I. Zalewska, A. Pokrywka, D. Kwiatkowska. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.106, 159 (2015)., [71] A. Casilli, T. Piper, F. A. de Oliveira, M. Costa Padilha, H. Marcelo Pereira, M. Thevis, F. R. de Aquino Neto. Drug Test Anal.8, 1204 (2016).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of marijuana can provide information to determine if the plants were grown “inside” a building or greenhouse or were “open grown” (Fig. IUPAC.6.4). Plant carbon isotopic compositions are controlled by atmospheric CO2 and the supply and demand of CO2 in photosynthesis (the process used by plants to convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy). “Open grown” plants are grown in an area that is well ventilated and receives natural CO2. In contrast, plants grown “inside” receive supplemented CO2 and the photosynthesis process is more confined. Additionally, CO2 from a tank of compressed gas used to augment atmospheric CO2 to increase the growth of marijuana plants is commonly highly depleted in 13C as a refinery by-product. These differences change the carbon isotope ratios of the plants and the ratios vary enough to enable the determination of the growing and cultivation process of marijuana [72] E. K. Shibuya, J. E. Souza Sarkis, O. N. Neto, M. Z. Moreira, R. L. Victoria. Forensic Sci. Int.160, 35 (2006)., [73] J. B. West, J. M. Hurley, J. R. Ehleringer. J Forensic Sci.54, 84 (2009)..
Tài liệu tham khảo (9)
- [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).
- [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).
- [69] B. D. Ahrens, A. W. Butch. Drug Test Anal.5, 534 (2013).
- [70] E. Bulska, D. Gorczyca, I. Zalewska, A. Pokrywka, D. Kwiatkowska. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.106, 159 (2015).
- [71] A. Casilli, T. Piper, F. A. de Oliveira, M. Costa Padilha, H. Marcelo Pereira, M. Thevis, F. R. de Aquino Neto. Drug Test Anal.8, 1204 (2016).
- [72] E. K. Shibuya, J. E. Souza Sarkis, O. N. Neto, M. Z. Moreira, R. L. Victoria. Forensic Sci. Int.160, 35 (2006).
- [73] J. B. West, J. M. Hurley, J. R. Ehleringer. J Forensic Sci.54, 84 (2009).
- [74] United States Drug Enforcement Administration. Marijuana-Indoor Marijuana Grow, United States Department of Justice (2014), Feb. 22; http://www.justice.gov/dea/pr/multimedia-library/image-gallery/images_marijuana.shtml.
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
Tài liệu tham khảo
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Carbon.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.