Rhenium (Re)
transition-metalSolid
Standart Atom Ağırlığı
186,207 uElektron dizilimi
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d5Erime noktası
3185,85 °CKaynama noktası
5595,85 °CYoğunluk
2,08e+4 kg/m³Yükseltgenme basamakları
−3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7Elektronegatiflik (Pauling)
1,9İyonlaşma enerjisi (1.)
7,83352 eVKeşif yılı
1925Atom yarıçapı
135 pmAyrıntılar
Rhenium is a very dense, high-melting transition metal in group 7, chemically related to manganese and technetium but far less abundant in the crust. It is notable for retaining strength at extreme temperature and for forming stable high oxidation states, especially +7. Natural rhenium occurs mainly as a trace substitute in molybdenite rather than as separate ores, making it a by-product metal of copper-molybdenum processing.
The element is silvery white with a metallic luster; its density is exceeded only by that of platinum, iridium, and osmium, and its melting point is exceeded only by that of tungsten and carbon.
The usual commercial form of the element is powder, but it can be consolidated by pressing and resistance-sintering in a vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere. This process produces a compact shape in excess of 90 percent of the density of the metal.
Annealed rhenium is very ductile, and can be bent, coiled, or rolled. Rhenium is used as an additive to tungsten and molybdenum -based alloys to impart useful properties.
The name derives from the Latin rhenus for the Rhine river in Germany. Rhenium was discovered by x-ray spectroscopy in 1925 by German chemists Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg.
Rhenium was discovered by the German chemists Ida Tacke-Noddack, Walter Noddack and Otto Carl Berg in 1925. They detected rhenium spectroscopically in platinum ores and in the minerals columbite ((Fe, Mn, Mg)(Nb, Ta)2O6), gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y)2FeBe2Si2O10) and molybdenite (MoS2). Rhenium is present in these materials only in trace amounts. In 1928, Noddack and Berg were able to extract 1 gram of rhenium from 660 kilograms of molybdenite. Today, rhenium is obtained as a byproduct of refining molybdenum and copper.
Discovery of rhenium is generally attributed to Noddack, Tacke, and Berg, who announced in 1925 they had detected the element in platinum ore and columbite. They also found the element in gadolinite and molybdenite. By working up 660 kg of molybdenite in 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of rhenium.
Pure rhenium is a silvery-white to gray metallic solid with a bright luster when freshly prepared. It is hard, dense, and refractory, with one of the highest melting points among the elements. Powdered rhenium can be darker gray because of surface condition and particle size.
The largest use of rhenium is in nickel-based superalloys for turbine blades and other hot-section components, where small additions improve high-temperature strength and creep resistance. Rhenium is also used with platinum in reforming catalysts for petroleum refining. Tungsten-rhenium and molybdenum-rhenium alloys serve in high-temperature thermocouples, filaments, electrical contacts, and specialized X-ray tube targets. Its radioisotopes ¹⁸⁶Re and ¹⁸⁸Re have been studied and used in limited nuclear-medicine applications.
Rhenium is used in flash lamps for photography and for filaments in mass spectrographs and ion gages, but is most frequently used as an alloying agent in tungsten and molybdenum and as a catalyst for performing certain reactions to a type of hydrocarbon known as an olefin.
It is widely used as filaments for mass spectrographs and ion gauges. Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductive at 10 K.
Rhenium is also used as an electrical contact material because it has good wear resistance and withstands arc corrosion. Thermocouples made of Re-W are used for measuring temperatures up to 2200C, and rhenium wire is used in photoflash lamps for photography.
Rhenium catalysts are exceptionally resistant to poisoning from nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, and are used for hydrogenation of fine chemicals.
Isotopes in Geochronology
The rhenium-osmium dating method is of special interest for the dating of rhenium-bearing ores, gold deposits, copper-nickel deposits, and meteorites. This method is based on the beta-decay of 187Re (having a half-life of 41.6×109 years) to 187Os, an example of which appears in Fig. IUPAC.75.1 [515] H. M. Baioumy, L. B. Eglinton, B. Peucker-Ehrenbrink. Chem. Geol.285, 70 (2011)..
Isotopes in Medicine
186Re (with a half-life of 89 h) is a beta-emitting radioisotope that is used for cancer treatment, in particular for pain relief in bone cancer and in rheumatoid arthritis (see radiosynovectomy). It is produced from the stable isotope 185Re via the 185Re (n, γ) 186Re reaction [188] S. J. Adelstein, F. J. Manning. Isotopes for Medicine and the Life Sciences, pp. 20–25, National Academy Press, Washington DC (1995).. 186Re is also used for radiolabeling of cancer therapeutic agents [188] S. J. Adelstein, F. J. Manning. Isotopes for Medicine and the Life Sciences, pp. 20–25, National Academy Press, Washington DC (1995).. 188Re (with a half-life of 17 h) is used to irradiate coronary arteries with beta particles during insertion of an angioplasty balloon (a tiny balloon that is inserted into an artery and inflated to flatten plaque build-up and improve blood flow) and in palliative therapy, particularly for bone metastases. The beta irradiation can decrease scar tissue formation after the overstretching of arteries by angioplasty.
Rhenium chemistry spans oxidation states from negative values in carbonyl complexes to +7 in oxo compounds, with +4, +5, and +7 especially important. Perrhenic acid, HReO₄, and perrhenate salts containing ReO₄⁻ resemble perchlorates in charge and geometry but are less oxidizing under many conditions. Rhenium(VII) oxide, Re₂O₇, is the volatile anhydride of perrhenic acid. Rhenium disulfide, ReS₂, is a layered dichalcogenide with lower symmetry than many related sulfides. Dirhenium decacarbonyl, Re₂(CO)₁₀, is a common starting material in organorhenium chemistry.
See more information at the Rhenium compound page.
Massive rhenium metal is generally of low chemical reactivity, but dusts and fine powders present inhalation and fire-control concerns typical of refractory metals. Soluble perrhenate compounds can be absorbed and should be handled as toxicologically insufficiently characterized heavy-metal salts. Radioactive rhenium isotopes pose isotope-specific radiation hazards; their risk depends on half-life, emissions, chemical form, and administered or handled activity.
Rhenium is a trace element with no known essential biological role. In rocks it is commonly associated with sulfide minerals, especially molybdenite, and can be mobilized during weathering as the soluble perrhenate ion, ReO₄⁻. Seawater contains very low concentrations of dissolved rhenium, and marine sediments can record rhenium enrichment under reducing conditions. Industrial releases are mainly linked to mining, smelting, and catalyst handling.
Rhenium is obtained almost entirely as a by-product, principally from molybdenite concentrates generated in porphyry copper-molybdenum mining. During roasting, volatile rhenium oxides are captured from flue dusts and converted to ammonium perrhenate, NH₄ReO₄, or to metal powder. Supply is constrained because production depends on the output and processing choices of other metals rather than on primary rhenium mines. Demand is concentrated in aerospace superalloys and platinum-rhenium catalysts, so recycling from spent catalysts and high-value alloy scrap is important. Substitution is limited in some turbine applications, but alloy design can reduce rhenium content when supply or cost pressures are high.
Rhenium does not occur free in nature or as a compound in a distinct mineral species. It is, however, widely spread throughout the earth's crust to the extent of about 0.001 ppm. Commercial rhenium in the U.S. today is obtained from molybdenum roaster-flue dusts obtained from copper-sulfide ores mined in the vicinity of Miami, Arizona and elsewhere in Arizona and in Utah.
Some molybdenum contains from 0.002% to 0.2% rhenium. More than 150,000 troy ounces of rhenium are now being produced yearly in the United States. The total estimated Free World reserve of rhenium metal is 3500 tons. Rhenium metal is prepared by reducing ammonium perrhentate with hydrogen at elevated temperatures.
Rhenium is cosmically rare. Its stable and very long-lived isotopes are produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in earlier generations of stars, followed by dispersal into interstellar material. In planetary bodies it behaves as a siderophile and chalcophile trace element, so it partitions into metal and sulfide phases rather than forming abundant silicate minerals.
- Rhenium was one of the last stable elements to be discovered.
- Natural rhenium is dominated by ¹⁸⁷Re, which is radioactive with an extremely long half-life.
- The ¹⁸⁷Re-¹⁸⁷Os decay system is used for dating some sulfide ores and meteorites.
- Rhenium has a higher boiling point than any other element under standard tabulations.
- Perrhenate, ReO₄⁻, is often used as a nonradioactive chemical analogue for pertechnetate, TcO₄⁻.
Görseller
Özellikler
Fiziksel
- Atom yarıçapı (ampirik)
- 135 pm Tüm elementlerin Atom yarıçapı (ampirik) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Kovalent yarıçap
- 151 pm Tüm elementlerin Kovalent yarıçap değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Van der Waals yarıçapı
- 217 pm Tüm elementlerin Van der Waals yarıçapı değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Metalik yarıçap
- 128 pm Tüm elementlerin Metalik yarıçap değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Yoğunluk
- 2,08 × 104 kg/m³ Tüm elementlerin Yoğunluk değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Molar hacim
- 0,00885 L/mol
- STP'deki faz
- Katı Tüm elementlerin STP'deki faz değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Erime noktası
- 3185,85 °C Tüm elementlerin Erime noktası değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Kaynama noktası
- 5595,85 °C Tüm elementlerin Kaynama noktası değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Isıl iletkenlik
- 48 W/(m·K) Tüm elementlerin Isıl iletkenlik değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Özgül ısı kapasitesi
- 0,137 J/(g·K) Tüm elementlerin Özgül ısı kapasitesi değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Molar ısı kapasitesi
- 25,48 J/(mol·K) Tüm elementlerin Molar ısı kapasitesi değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Kristal yapı
- Hekzagonal sıkı paket Tüm elementlerin Kristal yapı değerlerini karşılaştır →
Kimyasal
- Elektronegatiflik (Pauling)
- 1,9 Tüm elementlerin Elektronegatiflik (Pauling) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Elektronegatiflik (Allen)
- 1,6
- Elektron ilgisi
- 0,15 eV
- İyonlaşma enerjisi (1.)
- 7,83352 eV Tüm elementlerin İyonlaşma enerjisi (1.) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- İyonlaşma enerjisi (2.)
- 16,600057 eV Tüm elementlerin İyonlaşma enerjisi (2.) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- İyonlaşma enerjisi (3.)
- 27,000093 eV Tüm elementlerin İyonlaşma enerjisi (3.) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- İyonlaşma enerjisi (4.)
- 39,100135 eV Tüm elementlerin İyonlaşma enerjisi (4.) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- İyonlaşma enerjisi (5.)
- 51,900179 eV Tüm elementlerin İyonlaşma enerjisi (5.) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Yükseltgenme basamakları
- −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 Tüm elementlerin Yükseltgenme basamakları değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Değerlik elektronları
- 7 Tüm elementlerin Değerlik elektronları değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Elektron dizilimi
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d5
Termodinamik
- Erime ısısı
- 0,34927709 eV Tüm elementlerin Erime ısısı değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Buharlaşma ısısı
- 7,358657 eV Tüm elementlerin Buharlaşma ısısı değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Süblimleşme ısısı
- 8,032337 eV
- Atomlaşma ısısı
- 8,032337 eV
- Atomlaşma entalpisi
- 8,021972 eV
Nükleer
- Protonlar
- 75 Tüm elementlerin Protonlar değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Nötronlar
- 110 Tüm elementlerin Nötronlar değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Bilinen izotoplar
- 41 Tüm elementlerin Bilinen izotoplar değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Kararlı izotoplar
- 1 Tüm elementlerin Kararlı izotoplar değerlerini karşılaştır →
- En kararlı izotop
- Re-185
- Keşif yılı
- 1925
Bolluk
- Bolluk (yer kabuğu)
- 7e-4 mg/kg Tüm elementlerin Bolluk (yer kabuğu) değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Bolluk (okyanus)
- 4 × 10−6 mg/L Tüm elementlerin Bolluk (okyanus) değerlerini karşılaştır →
Kristal Yapı
- Örgü sabiti a
- 276 pm
Elektronik Yapı
- Kabuk başına elektron sayısı
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2 Tüm elementlerin Kabuk başına elektron sayısı değerlerini karşılaştır →
Tanımlayıcılar
- CAS numarası
- 7440-15-5 Tüm elementlerin CAS numarası değerlerini karşılaştır →
- Terim simgesi
- 6S5/2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Re
- InChI Anahtarı
- WUAPFZMCVAUBPE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Elektron Dizilimi Ölçülmüş
Re: 4f¹⁴ 5d⁵ 6s²[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d⁵ 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 5d⁵ 6s²Atom modeli
İzotoplar nötron sayısını, kütleyi ve kararlılığı değiştirir; nötr bir atomun elektron dizilimini değiştirmez.
Şematik atom modeli, ölçekli değildir.
Atomik Parmak İzi
Emisyon / Soğurma Spektrumu
İzotop Dağılımı
| Kütle numarası | Atom kütlesi (u) | Doğal bolluk | Yarı ömür |
|---|---|---|---|
| 185 Kararlı | 184,9529545 ± 0,0000013 | 37,4000% | Kararlı |
Faz / Hâl
Neden: erime noktasının (3185,85 °C) 3160,8 °C altında
Şematik, ölçekli değil
Faz geçiş noktaları
Geçiş enerjileri
Erime noktasında 1 mol maddeyi eritmek için gereken enerji
Kaynama noktasında 1 mol maddeyi buharlaştırmak için gereken enerji
Süblimleşme noktasında 1 mol maddeyi süblimleştirmek için gereken enerji
Yoğunluk
Standart koşullarda
Standart koşullarda
Atomik Spektrumlar
75 kayıttan 10 tanesi gösteriliyor. İyon yüküne göre sıralandı (artan).
Spektral Çizgi Kayıtları ?
| İyon | Yük | Toplam çizgi sayısı | Geçiş olasılıkları | Düzey gösterimleri |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Re I | 0 | 432 | 0 | 0 |
| Re II | +1 | 56 | 0 | 0 |
| Re III | +2 | 1381 | 1381 | 1381 |
| Re IV | +3 | 982 | 982 | 982 |
| Re V | +4 | 401 | 401 | 401 |
Enerji Düzeyi Kayıtları ?
| İyon | Yük | Düzeyler |
|---|---|---|
| Re I | 0 | 291 |
| Re II | +1 | 140 |
| Re III | +2 | 232 |
| Re IV | +3 | 162 |
| Re V | +4 | 80 |
| Re VI | +5 | 2 |
| Re VII | +6 | 2 |
| Re VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Re IX | +8 | 2 |
| Re X | +9 | 2 |
İyon Yarıçapları
| Yük | Koordinasyon | Spin | Yarıçap |
|---|---|---|---|
| +4 | 6 | Mevcut değil | 63 pm |
| +5 | 6 | Mevcut değil | 57.99999999999999 pm |
| +6 | 6 | Mevcut değil | 55.00000000000001 pm |
| +7 | 4 | Mevcut değil | 38 pm |
| +7 | 6 | Mevcut değil | 53 pm |
Bileşikler
İzotoplar (1)
Natural rhenium is a mixture of two stable isotopes. Twenty six other unstable isotopes are recognized.
| Kütle numarası | Atom kütlesi (u) | Doğal bolluk | Yarı ömür | Bozunma türü | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 185 Kararlı | 184,9529545 ± 0,0000013 | 37,4000% ± 0,0200% | Kararlı | stable |
Genişletilmiş Özellikler
Kovalent Yarıçaplar (Genişletilmiş)
- Kovalent yarıçap (Pyykkö)
- 131 pm
- Kovalent yarıçap (Pyykkö, çift bağ)
- 119 pm
- Kovalent yarıçap (Pyykkö, üçlü bağ)
- 110 pm
Van der Waals Yarıçapları
- Batsanov
- 205 pm
- Alvarez
- 249 pm
- UFF
- 295,4 pm
- MM3
- 237 pm
Atom ve Metalik Yarıçaplar
- Atom yarıçapı (Rahm)
- 249 pm
- Metalik yarıçap (C12)
- 137 pm
Numaralandırma Ölçekleri
- Mendeleev
- 57
- Pettifor
- 59
- Glawe
- 58
Elektronegatiflik Ölçekleri
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
Kutuplanabilirlik ve Dispersiyon
- Dipol kutuplanabilirliği
- 62 a.u.
- Dipol kutuplanabilirliği (belirsizlik)
- 3 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 663 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema Parametreleri
- Miedema molar hacmi
- 8,85 cm3/mol
- Miedema elektron yoğunluğu
- 6
Tedarik Riski ve Ekonomi
- Üretim yoğunlaşması
- 51
- Göreli tedarik riski
- 6
- Rezerv dağılımı
- 52
- Siyasi istikrar (en büyük üretici)
- 68
- Siyasi istikrar (en büyük rezerv sahibi)
- 68
Faz Geçişleri ve Allotroplar
| Erime noktası | 3458,15 K |
| Kaynama noktası | 5863,15 K |
Yükseltgenme Basamağı Kategorileri
İleri Düzey Referans Verileri
Perdeleme Sabitleri (14)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1,4522 |
| 2 | p | 4,438 |
| 2 | s | 19,5902 |
| 3 | d | 13,5453 |
| 3 | p | 21,5655 |
| 3 | s | 22,3515 |
| 4 | d | 36,9456 |
| 4 | f | 39,0752 |
| 4 | p | 34,6268 |
| 4 | s | 33,6436 |
Kristal Yarıçaplarının Ayrıntıları (5)
| Yük | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Köken |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | VI | 77 | from r^3 vs V plots, from metallic oxides, | |
| 5 | VI | 72 | estimated, | |
| 6 | VI | 69 | estimated, | |
| 7 | IV | 52 | ||
| 7 | VI | 67 |
İzotop Bozunma Türleri (54)
| İzotop | Mod | Şiddet |
|---|---|---|
| 159 | p | — |
| 159 | A | — |
| 160 | p | 89% |
| 160 | A | 11% |
| 161 | p | 100% |
| 161 | A | — |
| 162 | A | 94% |
| 162 | B+ | — |
| 163 | B+ | — |
| 163 | A | 32% |
X Işını Saçılma Faktörleri (516)
| Enerji (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 1,8209 |
| 10,1617 | — | 1,91145 |
| 10,3261 | — | 2,0065 |
| 10,4931 | — | 2,10629 |
| 10,6628 | — | 2,21103 |
| 10,8353 | — | 2,28753 |
| 11,0106 | — | 2,3602 |
| 11,1886 | — | 2,43518 |
| 11,3696 | — | 2,51255 |
| 11,5535 | — | 2,59237 |
Ek Veriler
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
7×10-4 milligrams per kilogram
Kaynaklar (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
4×10-6 milligrams per liter
Kaynaklar (1)
Sources
Sources of this element.
Rhenium does not occur free in nature or as a compound in a distinct mineral species. It is, however, widely spread throughout the earth's crust to the extent of about 0.001 ppm. Commercial rhenium in the U.S. today is obtained from molybdenum roaster-flue dusts obtained from copper-sulfide ores mined in the vicinity of Miami, Arizona and elsewhere in Arizona and in Utah.
Some molybdenum contains from 0.002% to 0.2% rhenium. More than 150,000 troy ounces of rhenium are now being produced yearly in the United States. The total estimated Free World reserve of rhenium metal is 3500 tons. Rhenium metal is prepared by reducing ammonium perrhentate with hydrogen at elevated temperatures.
Kaynaklar (1)
- [6] Rhenium https://periodic.lanl.gov/75.shtml
Kaynaklar
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Rhenium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.