Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
प्रमाणित अणुभार
72.63 uइलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2द्रवणांक
938.25 °Cउत्कलनांक
2832.85 °Cघनता
5323.4 kg/m³ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्था
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4विद्युतऋणता (पॉलिंग)
2.01आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पहिली)
7.899435 eVशोधाचे वर्ष
1886अणुत्रिज्या
125 pmतपशील
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
प्रतिमा
गुणधर्म
भौतिक
- अणुत्रिज्या (अनुभवाधारित)
- 125 pm सर्व घटकांच्या अणुत्रिज्या (अनुभवाधारित) ची तुलना करा →
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या
- 120 pm सर्व घटकांच्या सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या ची तुलना करा →
- व्हॅन डर वाल्स त्रिज्या
- 211 pm सर्व घटकांच्या व्हॅन डर वाल्स त्रिज्या ची तुलना करा →
- धात्विक त्रिज्या
- 124 pm सर्व घटकांच्या धात्विक त्रिज्या ची तुलना करा →
- घनता
- 5323.4 kg/m³ सर्व घटकांच्या घनता ची तुलना करा →
- मोलर आयतन
- 0.0136 L/mol
- STP येथे अवस्था
- घन सर्व घटकांच्या STP येथे अवस्था ची तुलना करा →
- द्रवणांक
- 938.25 °C सर्व घटकांच्या द्रवणांक ची तुलना करा →
- उत्कलनांक
- 2832.85 °C सर्व घटकांच्या उत्कलनांक ची तुलना करा →
- उष्णता चालकता
- 60.2 W/(m·K) सर्व घटकांच्या उष्णता चालकता ची तुलना करा →
- विशिष्ट उष्माधारकता
- 0.32 J/(g·K) सर्व घटकांच्या विशिष्ट उष्माधारकता ची तुलना करा →
- मोलर उष्माधारकता
- 23.222 J/(mol·K) सर्व घटकांच्या मोलर उष्माधारकता ची तुलना करा →
- स्फटिक संरचना
- हिऱ्यासारखी घनीय सर्व घटकांच्या स्फटिक संरचना ची तुलना करा →
रासायनिक
- विद्युतऋणता (पॉलिंग)
- 2.01 सर्व घटकांच्या विद्युतऋणता (पॉलिंग) ची तुलना करा →
- विद्युतऋणता (ॲलन)
- 1.994
- इलेक्ट्रॉन आसक्ती
- 1.232 eV
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पहिली)
- 7.899435 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पहिली) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (दुसरी)
- 15.934665 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (दुसरी) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (तिसरी)
- 34.057717 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (तिसरी) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (चौथी)
- 45.715657 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (चौथी) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पाचवी)
- 90.500312 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पाचवी) ची तुलना करा →
- ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्था
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 सर्व घटकांच्या ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्था ची तुलना करा →
- संयुजा इलेक्ट्रॉन
- 4 सर्व घटकांच्या संयुजा इलेक्ट्रॉन ची तुलना करा →
- इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
उष्मागतिक
- क्रांतिक बिंदू (तापमान)
- 9529 °C
- द्रवण उष्मा
- 0.38285744 eV सर्व घटकांच्या द्रवण उष्मा ची तुलना करा →
- बाष्पीभवन उष्मा
- 3.420221 eV सर्व घटकांच्या बाष्पीभवन उष्मा ची तुलना करा →
- संप्लवन उष्मा
- 3.907343 eV
- अणूकरण उष्मा
- 3.907343 eV
- अणूकरण एन्थाल्पी
- 3.855522 eV
केंद्रकीय
- प्रोटॉन
- 32 सर्व घटकांच्या प्रोटॉन ची तुलना करा →
- न्यूट्रॉन
- 42 सर्व घटकांच्या न्यूट्रॉन ची तुलना करा →
- ज्ञात समस्थानिके
- 33 सर्व घटकांच्या ज्ञात समस्थानिके ची तुलना करा →
- स्थिर समस्थानिके
- 4 सर्व घटकांच्या स्थिर समस्थानिके ची तुलना करा →
- सर्वाधिक स्थिर समस्थानिक
- Ge-74
- शोधाचे वर्ष
- 1886
विपुलता
- विपुलता (पृथ्वीचे कवच)
- 1.5 mg/kg सर्व घटकांच्या विपुलता (पृथ्वीचे कवच) ची तुलना करा →
- विपुलता (महासागर)
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L सर्व घटकांच्या विपुलता (महासागर) ची तुलना करा →
स्फटिक संरचना
- जालक स्थिरांक a
- 566 pm
इलेक्ट्रॉन संरचना
- प्रत्येक कवचातील इलेक्ट्रॉन
- 2, 8, 18, 4 सर्व घटकांच्या प्रत्येक कवचातील इलेक्ट्रॉन ची तुलना करा →
ओळखचिन्हे
- CAS क्रमांक
- 7440-56-4 सर्व घटकांच्या CAS क्रमांक ची तुलना करा →
- टर्म चिन्ह
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- InChI की
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण मोजलेले
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²अणुप्रतिमान
समस्थानिकांमुळे न्यूट्रॉन संख्या, वस्तुमान आणि स्थैर्य बदलते — विद्युतदृष्ट्या उदासीन अणूचे इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण बदलत नाही.
योजनात्मक अणुप्रतिमान, प्रमाणानुसार नाही.
अणूची विशिष्ट ओळख
उत्सर्जन / शोषण वर्णपट
समस्थानिक वितरण
| वस्तुमानांक | अणुवस्तुमान (u) | नैसर्गिक विपुलता | अर्धायुष्य |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 स्थिर | ६९.९२४२४८७५ ± ०.००००००९ | 20.5700% | स्थिर |
| 72 स्थिर | ७१.९२२०७५८२६ ± ०.०००००००८१ | 27.4500% | स्थिर |
| 73 स्थिर | ७२.९२३४५८९५६ ± ०.०००००००६१ | 7.7500% | स्थिर |
| 74 स्थिर | ७३.९२११७७७६१ ± ०.०००००००१३ | 36.5000% | स्थिर |
अवस्था / स्थिती
कारण: द्रवणांकापेक्षा (938.25 °C) 913.3 °C कमी
योजनात्मक, प्रमाणानुसार नाही
अवस्थांतर बिंदू
अवस्थांतर ऊर्जा
द्रवणांकावर 1 mol वितळवण्यासाठी आवश्यक ऊर्जा
उत्कलनांकावर 1 mol चे बाष्पीभवन करण्यासाठी आवश्यक ऊर्जा
संप्लवनांकावर 1 mol चे संप्लवन करण्यासाठी आवश्यक ऊर्जा
घनता
प्रमाणित परिस्थितीत
प्रमाणित परिस्थितीत
प्रगत
अणुवर्णपट
32 पैकी 10 दाखवले आहेत. आयनाच्या विद्युतभारानुसार चढत्या क्रमाने मांडलेले.
वर्णरेषांचा संग्रह ?
| आयन | विद्युतभार | एकूण वर्णरेषा | संक्रमण संभाव्यता | पातळ्यांची नामांकने |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
ऊर्जा पातळ्यांचा संग्रह ?
| आयन | विद्युतभार | पातळ्या |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
आयनिक त्रिज्या
| विद्युतभार | समन्वय | प्रचक्रण | त्रिज्या |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | उपलब्ध नाही | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | उपलब्ध नाही | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | उपलब्ध नाही | 53 pm |
संयुगे
समस्थानिके (4)
| वस्तुमानांक | अणुवस्तुमान (u) | नैसर्गिक विपुलता | अर्धायुष्य | क्षय प्रकार | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 स्थिर | ६९.९२४२४८७५ ± ०.००००००९ | 20.5700% ± 0.2700% | स्थिर | stable | |
| 72 स्थिर | ७१.९२२०७५८२६ ± ०.०००००००८१ | 27.4500% ± 0.3200% | स्थिर | stable | |
| 73 स्थिर | ७२.९२३४५८९५६ ± ०.०००००००६१ | 7.7500% ± 0.1200% | स्थिर | stable | |
| 74 स्थिर | ७३.९२११७७७६१ ± ०.०००००००१३ | 36.5000% ± 0.2000% | स्थिर | stable |
वर्णरेषा
57 पैकी 50 दाखवले आहेत. मूलभूत सेटिंगनुसार केवळ मोजलेली तीव्रता असलेल्या वर्णरेषा दाखवल्या जातात.
| तरंगलांबी (nm) | तीव्रता | आयनीकरण टप्पा | प्रकार | संक्रमण | अचूकता | स्रोत | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | मोजलेले | NIST |
विस्तारित गुणधर्म
सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (विस्तारित)
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (प्युक्को)
- 121 pm
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (प्युक्को, दुहेरी बंध)
- 111 pm
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (प्युक्को, तिहेरी बंध)
- 114 pm
व्हॅन डर वाल्स त्रिज्या
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
अणुत्रिज्या आणि धात्विक त्रिज्या
- अणुत्रिज्या (राह्म)
- 234 pm
- धात्विक त्रिज्या (C12)
- 144 pm
क्रमांकन मापनपट्ट्या
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
विद्युतऋणता मापनपट्ट्या
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
ध्रुवणक्षमता आणि अपस्करण
- द्विध्रुव ध्रुवणक्षमता
- 40 a.u.
- द्विध्रुव ध्रुवणक्षमता (अनिश्चितता)
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
मिडेमा प्राचल
- मिडेमा मोलर आयतन
- 9.87 cm3/mol
- मिडेमा इलेक्ट्रॉन घनता
- 3
पुरवठा जोखीम आणि अर्थकारण
- उत्पादनाचे केंद्रीकरण
- 67
- सापेक्ष पुरवठा जोखीम
- 8
- राजकीय स्थैर्य (प्रमुख उत्पादक)
- 24
अवस्थांतरे आणि अपरूपे
| द्रवणांक | 1211.4 K |
| उत्कलनांक | 3106.15 K |
| क्रांतिक बिंदू (तापमान) | 9802.15 K |
ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्थांचे वर्ग
प्रगत संदर्भ माहिती
परिरक्षण स्थिरांक (8)
| n | कक्षिका | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.7063 |
| 2 | p | 3.9178 |
| 2 | s | 8.6352 |
| 3 | d | 15.7487 |
| 3 | p | 14.9864 |
| 3 | s | 14.2103 |
| 4 | p | 25.2196 |
| 4 | s | 23.9564 |
स्फटिक त्रिज्यांचा तपशील (3)
| विद्युतभार | CN | प्रचक्रण | rcrystal (pm) | उत्पत्ती |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
समस्थानिक क्षय प्रकार (50)
| समस्थानिक | मोड | तीव्रता |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0.2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
क्ष-किरण प्रकीर्णन गुणक (506)
| ऊर्जा (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3.01183 |
| 10.1617 | — | 3.05548 |
| 10.3261 | — | 3.09976 |
| 10.4931 | — | 3.14468 |
| 10.6628 | — | 3.19025 |
| 10.8353 | — | 3.21825 |
| 11.0106 | — | 3.20755 |
| 11.1886 | — | 3.19689 |
| 11.3696 | — | 3.18626 |
| 11.5535 | — | 3.17568 |
अतिरिक्त माहिती
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
संदर्भ (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
संदर्भ (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
संदर्भ (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
संदर्भ
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.