Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
표준 원자량
72.63 u전자 배치
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2녹는점
938.25 °C끓는점
2832.85 °C밀도
5323.4 kg/m³산화 상태
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4전기 음성도(Pauling)
2.01제1 이온화 에너지
7.899435 eV발견 연도
1886원자 반지름
125 pm상세 정보
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
이미지
특성
물리적 특성
- 원자 반지름(경험값)
- 125 pm 모든 원소의 원자 반지름(경험값) 비교 →
- 공유 결합 반지름
- 120 pm 모든 원소의 공유 결합 반지름 비교 →
- 반데르발스 반지름
- 211 pm 모든 원소의 반데르발스 반지름 비교 →
- 금속 반지름
- 124 pm 모든 원소의 금속 반지름 비교 →
- 밀도
- 5323.4 kg/m³ 모든 원소의 밀도 비교 →
- 몰 부피
- 0.0136 L/mol
- STP에서의 상
- 고체 모든 원소의 STP에서의 상 비교 →
- 녹는점
- 938.25 °C 모든 원소의 녹는점 비교 →
- 끓는점
- 2832.85 °C 모든 원소의 끓는점 비교 →
- 열전도율
- 60.2 W/(m·K) 모든 원소의 열전도율 비교 →
- 비열
- 0.32 J/(g·K) 모든 원소의 비열 비교 →
- 몰 열용량
- 23.222 J/(mol·K) 모든 원소의 몰 열용량 비교 →
- 결정 구조
- 다이아몬드 입방 모든 원소의 결정 구조 비교 →
화학적 특성
- 전기 음성도(Pauling)
- 2.01 모든 원소의 전기 음성도(Pauling) 비교 →
- 전기 음성도(Allen)
- 1.994
- 전자 친화도
- 1.232 eV
- 제1 이온화 에너지
- 7.899435 eV 모든 원소의 제1 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제2 이온화 에너지
- 15.934665 eV 모든 원소의 제2 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제3 이온화 에너지
- 34.057717 eV 모든 원소의 제3 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제4 이온화 에너지
- 45.715657 eV 모든 원소의 제4 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제5 이온화 에너지
- 90.500312 eV 모든 원소의 제5 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 산화 상태
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 모든 원소의 산화 상태 비교 →
- 원자가 전자
- 4 모든 원소의 원자가 전자 비교 →
- 전자 배치
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
열역학적 특성
- 임계점(온도)
- 9529 °C
- 융해열
- 0.38285744 eV 모든 원소의 융해열 비교 →
- 기화열
- 3.420221 eV 모든 원소의 기화열 비교 →
- 승화열
- 3.907343 eV
- 원자화열
- 3.907343 eV
- 원자화 엔탈피
- 3.855522 eV
핵 특성
- 양성자 수
- 32 모든 원소의 양성자 수 비교 →
- 중성자 수
- 42 모든 원소의 중성자 수 비교 →
- 알려진 동위원소 수
- 33 모든 원소의 알려진 동위원소 수 비교 →
- 안정 동위원소 수
- 4 모든 원소의 안정 동위원소 수 비교 →
- 가장 안정한 동위원소
- Ge-74
- 발견 연도
- 1886
존재비
- 존재비(지각)
- 1.5 mg/kg 모든 원소의 존재비(지각) 비교 →
- 존재비(해양)
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L 모든 원소의 존재비(해양) 비교 →
결정 구조
- 격자 상수 a
- 566 pm
전자 구조
- 전자껍질별 전자 수
- 2, 8, 18, 4 모든 원소의 전자껍질별 전자 수 비교 →
식별자
- CAS 등록 번호
- 7440-56-4 모든 원소의 CAS 등록 번호 비교 →
- 항 기호
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- InChI 키
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
전자 배치 측정값
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²원자 모형
동위원소에 따라 중성자 수, 질량, 안정성은 달라지지만, 중성 원자의 전자 배치는 달라지지 않습니다.
개략적인 원자 모형이며 실제 비율과 다릅니다.
원자 지문
방출 / 흡수 스펙트럼
동위원소 분포
| 질량수 | 원자 질량(u) | 천연 존재비 | 반감기 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 안정 | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% | 안정 |
| 72 안정 | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% | 안정 |
| 73 안정 | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% | 안정 |
| 74 안정 | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% | 안정 |
상 / 상태
이유: 녹는점(938.25 °C)보다 913.3 °C 낮음
개략도이며 실제 비율과 다름
상전이점
전이 에너지
녹는점에서 1 mol을 녹이는 데 필요한 에너지
끓는점에서 1 mol을 기화시키는 데 필요한 에너지
승화점에서 1 mol을 승화시키는 데 필요한 에너지
밀도
표준 조건에서
표준 조건에서
심화
원자 스펙트럼
전체 32개 중 10개를 표시합니다. 이온 전하순으로 정렬되었습니다(오름차순).
보유 스펙트럼선 데이터 ?
| 이온 | 전하 | 총 스펙트럼선 수 | 전이 확률 | 준위 표기 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
보유 에너지 준위 데이터 ?
| 이온 | 전하 | 준위 |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
이온 반지름
| 전하 | 배위 | 스핀 | 반지름 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | 해당 없음 | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | 해당 없음 | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | 해당 없음 | 53 pm |
화합물
동위원소 (4)
| 질량수 | 원자 질량(u) | 천연 존재비 | 반감기 | 붕괴 방식 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 안정 | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% ± 0.2700% | 안정 | stable | |
| 72 안정 | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% ± 0.3200% | 안정 | stable | |
| 73 안정 | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% ± 0.1200% | 안정 | stable | |
| 74 안정 | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% ± 0.2000% | 안정 | stable |
스펙트럼선
전체 57개 중 50개를 표시합니다. 기본적으로 세기가 측정된 스펙트럼선만 표시됩니다.
| 파장(nm) | 세기 | 이온화 단계 | 유형 | 전이 | 정확도 | 출처 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | 측정값 | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 측정값 | NIST |
확장 특성
공유 결합 반지름(확장)
- 공유 결합 반지름(Pyykkö)
- 121 pm
- 공유 결합 반지름(Pyykkö, 이중 결합)
- 111 pm
- 공유 결합 반지름(Pyykkö, 삼중 결합)
- 114 pm
반데르발스 반지름
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
원자 및 금속 반지름
- 원자 반지름(Rahm)
- 234 pm
- 금속 반지름(C12)
- 144 pm
번호 척도
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
전기 음성도 척도
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
분극률 및 분산
- 쌍극자 분극률
- 40 a.u.
- 쌍극자 분극률(불확도)
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
미데마 매개변수
- 미데마 몰 부피
- 9.87 cm3/mol
- 미데마 전자 밀도
- 3
공급 위험 및 경제성
- 생산 집중도
- 67
- 상대적 공급 위험
- 8
- 정치적 안정성(최대 생산국)
- 24
상전이 및 동소체
| 녹는점 | 1211.4 K |
| 끓는점 | 3106.15 K |
| 임계점(온도) | 9802.15 K |
산화 상태 분류
심화 참고 데이터
차폐 상수 (8)
| n | 오비탈 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.7063 |
| 2 | p | 3.9178 |
| 2 | s | 8.6352 |
| 3 | d | 15.7487 |
| 3 | p | 14.9864 |
| 3 | s | 14.2103 |
| 4 | p | 25.2196 |
| 4 | s | 23.9564 |
결정 반지름 상세 정보 (3)
| 전하 | CN | 스핀 | rcrystal (pm) | 기원 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
동위원소 붕괴 방식 (50)
| 동위원소 | 모드 | 세기 |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0.2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
X선 산란 인자 (506)
| 에너지 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3.01183 |
| 10.1617 | — | 3.05548 |
| 10.3261 | — | 3.09976 |
| 10.4931 | — | 3.14468 |
| 10.6628 | — | 3.19025 |
| 10.8353 | — | 3.21825 |
| 11.0106 | — | 3.20755 |
| 11.1886 | — | 3.19689 |
| 11.3696 | — | 3.18626 |
| 11.5535 | — | 3.17568 |
추가 데이터
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
참고 문헌 (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
참고 문헌 (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
참고 문헌 (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
참고 문헌
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.