Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
標準原子量
72.63 u電子配置
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2融点
938.25 °C沸点
2832.85 °C密度
5323.4 kg/m³酸化数
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4電気陰性度（Pauling）
2.01第1イオン化エネルギー
7.899435 eV発見年
1886原子半径
125 pm詳細
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
画像
性質
物理的性質
- 原子半径（経験値）
- 125 pm 全元素の原子半径（経験値）を比較 →
- 共有結合半径
- 120 pm 全元素の共有結合半径を比較 →
- ファンデルワールス半径
- 211 pm 全元素のファンデルワールス半径を比較 →
- 金属半径
- 124 pm 全元素の金属半径を比較 →
- 密度
- 5323.4 kg/m³ 全元素の密度を比較 →
- モル体積
- 0.0136 L/mol
- 標準温度・圧力（STP）での相
- 固体 全元素の標準温度・圧力（STP）での相を比較 →
- 融点
- 938.25 °C 全元素の融点を比較 →
- 沸点
- 2832.85 °C 全元素の沸点を比較 →
- 熱伝導率
- 60.2 W/(m·K) 全元素の熱伝導率を比較 →
- 比熱容量
- 0.32 J/(g·K) 全元素の比熱容量を比較 →
- モル熱容量
- 23.222 J/(mol·K) 全元素のモル熱容量を比較 →
- 結晶構造
- ダイヤモンド立方構造 全元素の結晶構造を比較 →
化学的性質
- 電気陰性度（Pauling）
- 2.01 全元素の電気陰性度（Pauling）を比較 →
- 電気陰性度（Allen）
- 1.994
- 電子親和力
- 1.232 eV
- 第1イオン化エネルギー
- 7.899435 eV 全元素の第1イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第2イオン化エネルギー
- 15.934665 eV 全元素の第2イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第3イオン化エネルギー
- 34.057717 eV 全元素の第3イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第4イオン化エネルギー
- 45.715657 eV 全元素の第4イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 第5イオン化エネルギー
- 90.500312 eV 全元素の第5イオン化エネルギーを比較 →
- 酸化数
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 全元素の酸化数を比較 →
- 価電子
- 4 全元素の価電子を比較 →
- 電子配置
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
熱力学的性質
- 臨界点（温度）
- 9529 °C
- 融解熱
- 0.38285744 eV 全元素の融解熱を比較 →
- 蒸発熱
- 3.420221 eV 全元素の蒸発熱を比較 →
- 昇華熱
- 3.907343 eV
- 原子化熱
- 3.907343 eV
- 原子化エンタルピー
- 3.855522 eV
原子核
- 陽子数
- 32 全元素の陽子数を比較 →
- 中性子数
- 42 全元素の中性子数を比較 →
- 既知の同位体
- 33 全元素の既知の同位体を比較 →
- 安定同位体
- 4 全元素の安定同位体を比較 →
- 最も安定な同位体
- Ge-74
- 発見年
- 1886
存在度
- 存在度（地殻）
- 1.5 mg/kg 全元素の存在度（地殻）を比較 →
- 存在度（海洋）
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L 全元素の存在度（海洋）を比較 →
結晶構造
- 格子定数a
- 566 pm
電子構造
- 各電子殻の電子数
- 2, 8, 18, 4 全元素の各電子殻の電子数を比較 →
識別子
- CAS登録番号
- 7440-56-4 全元素のCAS登録番号を比較 →
- 項記号
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- InChI Key
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
電子配置 測定値
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²原子モデル
同位体によって中性子数、質量、安定性は変わりますが、中性原子の電子配置は変わりません。
模式的な原子モデルです。実際の縮尺とは異なります。
原子の指紋
発光／吸収スペクトル
同位体分布
| 質量数 | 原子質量（u） | 天然存在比 | 半減期 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 安定 | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% | 安定 |
| 72 安定 | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% | 安定 |
| 73 安定 | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% | 安定 |
| 74 安定 | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% | 安定 |
相／状態
理由: 融点（938.25 °C）より913.3 °C低い
模式図、実際の縮尺とは異なります
相転移点
相転移エネルギー
融点で1 molを融解させるのに必要なエネルギー
沸点で1 molを蒸発させるのに必要なエネルギー
昇華点で1 molを昇華させるのに必要なエネルギー
密度
標準条件下
標準条件下
詳細
原子スペクトル
全32件中10件を表示しています。 イオンの電荷の昇順で並べています。
スペクトル線データの収録状況 ?
| イオン | 電荷 | スペクトル線の総数 | 遷移確率 | 準位の表記 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
準位データの収録状況 ?
| イオン | 電荷 | 準位 |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
イオン半径
| 電荷 | 配位 | スピン | 半径 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | データなし | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | データなし | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | データなし | 53 pm |
化合物
同位体 (4)
| 質量数 | 原子質量（u） | 天然存在比 | 半減期 | 崩壊形式 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 安定 | 69.92424875 ± 0.0000009 | 20.5700% ± 0.2700% | 安定 | stable | |
| 72 安定 | 71.922075826 ± 0.000000081 | 27.4500% ± 0.3200% | 安定 | stable | |
| 73 安定 | 72.923458956 ± 0.000000061 | 7.7500% ± 0.1200% | 安定 | stable | |
| 74 安定 | 73.921177761 ± 0.000000013 | 36.5000% ± 0.2000% | 安定 | stable |
スペクトル線
全57件中50件を表示しています。 初期設定では、強度の測定値があるスペクトル線のみを表示します。
| 波長（nm） | 強度 | 電離段階 | 種類 | 遷移 | 精度 | 出典 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | 測定値 | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | 測定値 | NIST |
詳細な性質
共有結合半径（詳細）
- 共有結合半径（Pyykkö）
- 121 pm
- 共有結合半径（Pyykkö、二重結合）
- 111 pm
- 共有結合半径（Pyykkö、三重結合）
- 114 pm
ファンデルワールス半径
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
原子半径と金属半径
- 原子半径（Rahm）
- 234 pm
- 金属半径（C12）
- 144 pm
番号付けの尺度
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
電気陰性度の尺度
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
分極率と分散
- 双極子分極率
- 40 a.u.
- 双極子分極率（不確かさ）
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
ミーデマパラメータ
- ミーデマモル体積
- 9.87 cm3/mol
- ミーデマ電子密度
- 3
供給リスクと経済性
- 生産集中度
- 67
- 相対供給リスク
- 8
- 政治的安定性（最大生産国）
- 24
相転移と同素体
| 融点 | 1211.4 K |
| 沸点 | 3106.15 K |
| 臨界点（温度） | 9802.15 K |
酸化数の分類
専門参考データ
遮蔽定数 (8)
| n | 軌道 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0.7063 |
| 2 | p | 3.9178 |
| 2 | s | 8.6352 |
| 3 | d | 15.7487 |
| 3 | p | 14.9864 |
| 3 | s | 14.2103 |
| 4 | p | 25.2196 |
| 4 | s | 23.9564 |
結晶半径の詳細 (3)
| 電荷 | CN | スピン | rcrystal (pm) | 由来 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
同位体の崩壊形式 (50)
| 同位体 | モード | 強度 |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0.2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
X線散乱因子 (506)
| エネルギー (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3.01183 |
| 10.1617 | — | 3.05548 |
| 10.3261 | — | 3.09976 |
| 10.4931 | — | 3.14468 |
| 10.6628 | — | 3.19025 |
| 10.8353 | — | 3.21825 |
| 11.0106 | — | 3.20755 |
| 11.1886 | — | 3.19689 |
| 11.3696 | — | 3.18626 |
| 11.5535 | — | 3.17568 |
追加データ
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
参考文献 (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
参考文献 (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
参考文献
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.