Lead (Pb)
post-transition-metalSolid
Стандартна відносна атомна маса
207,2 u [206,14, 207,94]Електронна конфігурація
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2Температура плавлення
327,46 °CТемпература кипіння
1748,85 °CГустина
1,1342e+4 kg/m³Ступені окиснення
−4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4Електронегативність (за Полінгом)
2,33Енергія йонізації (1-ша)
7,41668 eVРік відкриття
2021Атомний радіус
180 pmВідомості
Lead is a dense, soft post-transition metal with atomic number 82. It is chemically characterized by the +2 oxidation state, with +4 less stable except in selected compounds, a pattern influenced by the inert-pair effect. Lead has been used since antiquity because it is easily smelted and worked, but its toxicity now strongly limits dispersive uses. It remains important where high density, corrosion resistance, low melting point, and radiation attenuation are valuable.
Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright luster. It is very soft, highly malleable, ductile, and a poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service. It is used in containers for corrosive liquids (such as sulfuric acid) and may be toughened by the addition of a small percentage of antimony or other metals.
The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon lead, which is of unknown origin. The element was known from prehistoric times. The chemical symbol Pb is derived from the Latin plumbum.
<!-- --> <p class="caption">For more information about the natural variations of the atomic weight of lead please read IUPAC Technical Report Variation of lead isotopic composition and atomic weight in terrestrial materials (IUPAC Technical Report) <img src="images/pdf.gif" style="width:auto; margin:0; vertical-align:bottom;"> by Z.-K. Zhu et al Pure Appl. Chem. <strong>93</strong>, 155-166 (2021).
Lead has been known since ancient times. It is sometimes found free in nature, but is usually obtained from the ores galena (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3) and minum (Pb3O4). Although lead makes up only about 0.0013% of the earth's crust, it is not considered to be a rare element since it is easily mined and refined. Most lead is obtained by roasting galena in hot air, although nearly one third of the lead used in the United States is obtained through recycling efforts.
Long known, mentioned in Exodus. The alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated with the planet Saturn. Native lead occurs in nature, but is rare.
Pure lead is a bluish-gray, lustrous metal when freshly cut. It tarnishes in air to a dull gray surface as oxide and carbonate films form. It is very soft, malleable, and dense, with a low melting point for a metal.
Lead is used in lead–acid batteries, which remain its dominant application. Metallic lead and lead alloys are also used for radiation shielding, ballast, weights, cable sheathing, and some solders or fusible alloys where regulations allow. Historically it was used in pipes, roofing, pigments, ammunition, gasoline additives, and paints, but many such uses have been restricted or eliminated because they release lead to people or the environment.
Lead is a soft, malleable and corrosion resistant material. The ancient Romans used lead to make water pipes, some of which are still in use today. Unfortunately for the ancient Romans, lead is a cumulative poison and the decline of the Roman empire has been blamed, in part, on lead in the water supply. Lead is used to line tanks that store corrosive liquids, such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Lead's high density makes it useful as a shield against X-ray and gamma-ray radiation and is used in X-ray machines and nuclear reactors. Lead is also used as a covering on some wires and cables to protect them from corrosion, as a material to absorb vibrations and sounds and in the manufacture of ammunition. Most of the lead used today is used in the production on lead-acid storage batteries, such as the batteries found in automobiles.
Several lead alloys are widely used. Solder, an alloy that is nearly half lead and half tin, is a material with a relatively low melting point that is used to join electrical components, pipes and other metallic items. Type metal, an alloy of lead, tin and antimony, is a material used to make the type used in printing presses and plates. Babbit metal, another lead alloy, is used to reduce friction in bearings.
Lead forms many useful compounds. Lead monoxide (PbO), also known as litharge, is a yellow solid that is used to make some types of glass, such as lead crystal and flint glass, in the vulcanizing of rubber and as a paint pigment. Lead dioxide (PbO2) is a brown material that is used in lead-acid storage batteries. Trilead tetraoxide (Pb3O4), also known as red lead, is used to make a reddish-brown paint that prevents rust on outdoor steel structures. Lead arsenate (Pb3(AsO4)2) has been used as an insecticide although other, less harmful, substances have now largely replaced it. Lead carbonate (PbCO3), also known as cerussite, is a white, poisonous substance that was once widely used as a pigment for white paint. Use of lead carbonate in paints has largely been stopped in favor of titanium oxide (TiO2). Lead sulfate (PbSO4), also known as anglesite, is used in a paint pigment known as sublimed white lead. Lead chromate (PbCrO4), also known as crocoite, is used to produce chrome yellow paint. Lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) is used to make fireworks and other pyrotechnics. Lead silicate (PbSiO3) is used to make some types of glass and in the production of rubber and paints.
The metal is very effective as a sound absorber, is used as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment and nuclear reactors, and is used to absorb vibration. White lead, the basic carbonate, sublimed white lead, chrome yellow, and other lead compounds are used extensively in paints, although in recent years the use of lead in paints has been drastically curtailed to eliminate or reduce health hazards.
Lead oxide is used in producing fine "crystal glass" and "flint glass" of a high index of refraction for achromatic lenses. The nitrate and the acetate are soluble salts. Lead salts such as lead arsenate have been used as insecticides, but their use in recent years has been practically eliminated in favor of less harmful organic compounds.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
The study of lead isotopic compositions is used to model the distribution of pollution in water and on land (Fig. IUPAC.82.1). For example, in one study of Lake Härsvatten in Sweden, the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(207Pb) measured at different sediment depths in different areas throughout the lake showed patterns of accumulation of lead pollution. In some cases, these patterns could be related to sediment distribution patterns. Another study used 210Pb (with a half-life of 22.6 years) dating methods to study the vertical accretion of sediments in canals and wetland areas in Louisiana over the last 80 to 100 years [541] R. Bindler, I. Renberg, M. L. Brannvall, O. Emteryd, F. El Daoushy. Limnol. Oceanogr.46, 178 (2001)., [542] R. D. DeLaune, J. H. Whitcomb, W. H. Patrick, J. H. Pardue, S. R. Pezeshki. Estuaries12, 247 (1989)..
Three of the stable isotopes of lead (206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb) are produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium and thorium (238U, 235U, and 232Th, respectively) and are largely unaffected by environmental and metallurgical processes. Therefore, by examining various isotope-amount ratios of lead isotopes, it is possible to approximate the age of a material. It is also possible to use this information to trace the origins of an object or material [543] R. W. Hurst. Environ. Geosci.9, 1 (2002)., [544] University of Arizona. Clues To African Archaeology Found In Lead Isotopes, ScienceDaily (2014), Feb. 25; http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/04/060404204102.htm., [545] M. Tatsumoto, J. N. Rosholt. Science167, 461 (1970)., [546] R. H. Brill. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A Mathematical and Physical Sciences.269, 143 (1970)..
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..
The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..
210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..
Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
The three natural radioactive-decay chains beginning with 238U, 235U, and 232Th each have comparable half-lives that are much longer than the radioactive isotopes that follow until the production of stable isotopes of 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb, respectively. Therefore, one can measure the relative amounts of the radiogenic isotopes of lead to determine the length of time that has elapsed since uranium and thorium atoms were incorporated into rocks and minerals. Typically, this method is used to date minerals that are tens of millions to billions of years old. The uranium-lead dating method was used to determine some of the first accurate ages of the Earth (about 4.55×109 years) [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)., [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)..
Lead chemistry is dominated by Pb²⁺ compounds, including lead(II) oxide (PbO), lead(II) sulfide (PbS), lead(II) carbonate (PbCO₃), and lead(II) sulfate (PbSO₄). Lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂) is an important oxidizing compound and a key electrode material in lead–acid batteries. Tetraethyllead (Pb(C₂H₅)₄) was formerly used as an antiknock gasoline additive. Many lead salts are sparingly soluble, but solubility and bioavailability depend strongly on pH, ligands, and particle size.
Natural lead is a mixture of four stable isotopes: 204Pb (1.48%), 206Pb (23.6%), 207Pb (22.6%), and 208Pb (52.3%). Lead isotopes are the end products of each of the three series of naturally occurring radioactive elements: 206Pb for the uranium series, 207Pb for the actinium series, and 208Pb for the thorium series. Twenty seven other isotopes of lead, all of which are radioactive, are recognized.
Its alloys include solder, type metal, and various antifriction metals. Great quantities of lead, both as the metal and as the dioxide, are used in storage batteries. Much metal also goes into cable covering, plumbing, ammunition, and in the manufacture of lead tetraethyl.
See more information at the Lead compound page.
Lead and many lead compounds are cumulative poisons. Exposure can damage the nervous system, blood formation, kidneys, and reproduction, with children especially sensitive to neurodevelopmental effects. Major hazards come from dust, fumes, contaminated soil, old paint, plumbing, ammunition residues, and some industrial processes. Metallic lead is less readily absorbed than soluble salts or fine particles but is not considered safe for ingestion or uncontrolled handling.
Care must be used in handling lead as it is a cumulative poison. Environmental concerns with lead poisoning has resulted in a national program to eliminate the lead in gasoline.
Lead occurs naturally in minerals, especially galena, and enters soils and sediments through weathering, mining, smelting, combustion residues, old paints, ammunition, and legacy gasoline emissions. It is not degraded chemically and tends to bind to particles, organic matter, sulfides, and carbonates. Mobility increases in acidic or complexing conditions. Biological accumulation occurs, but lead is not an essential nutrient and can harm wildlife at elevated exposure levels.
Lead is produced chiefly from sulfide ores, often in association with zinc, silver, and copper. Primary production involves concentration, roasting or direct smelting, and refining. Recycling is central to supply, especially from spent lead–acid batteries, because the metal can be recovered efficiently and repeatedly. Demand is closely tied to battery manufacture, while regulations and substitution have reduced markets in pigments, plumbing, fuel additives, and many consumer products.
Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.
Lead is relatively abundant among the heaviest stable elements because several isotopes are end products of natural radioactive decay chains and are also produced by slow neutron capture in stars. ²⁰⁸Pb is especially stable, with closed proton and neutron shells. In planetary materials, lead is chalcophile and commonly follows sulfur into sulfide minerals rather than remaining evenly distributed in silicates.
- Lead–acid batteries use both lead (Pb) and lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂) as active electrode materials.
- The symbol Pb comes from the Latin name plumbum.
- Fresh lead is noticeably brighter than the dull surface usually seen in air.
- Lead shot and bullets are a continuing source of localized environmental contamination.
- ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb are final products of major natural decay chains.
- Lead’s softness allows it to be scratched with a fingernail under ordinary conditions.
Зображення
Властивості
Фізичні
- Атомний радіус (емпіричний)
- 180 pm Порівняти Атомний радіус (емпіричний) усіх елементів →
- Ковалентний радіус
- 146 pm Порівняти Ковалентний радіус усіх елементів →
- Радіус ван дер Ваальса
- 202 pm Порівняти Радіус ван дер Ваальса усіх елементів →
- Металічний радіус
- 150 pm Порівняти Металічний радіус усіх елементів →
- Густина
- 1,1342 × 104 kg/m³ Порівняти Густина усіх елементів →
- Молярний об’єм
- 0,0183 L/mol
- Фаза за стандартних температури й тиску
- Твердий стан Порівняти Фаза за стандартних температури й тиску усіх елементів →
- Температура плавлення
- 327,46 °C Порівняти Температура плавлення усіх елементів →
- Температура кипіння
- 1748,85 °C Порівняти Температура кипіння усіх елементів →
- Теплопровідність
- 35,3 Вт/(м·K) Порівняти Теплопровідність усіх елементів →
- Питома теплоємність
- 0,13 Дж/(г·K) Порівняти Питома теплоємність усіх елементів →
- Молярна теплоємність
- 26,84 Дж/(моль·K) Порівняти Молярна теплоємність усіх елементів →
- Кристалічна структура
- Гранецентрована кубічна Порівняти Кристалічна структура усіх елементів →
Хімічні
- Електронегативність (за Полінгом)
- 2,33 Порівняти Електронегативність (за Полінгом) усіх елементів →
- Електронегативність (за Алленом)
- 1,854
- Спорідненість до електрона
- 0,364 eV
- Енергія йонізації (1-ша)
- 7,41668 eV Порівняти Енергія йонізації (1-ша) усіх елементів →
- Енергія йонізації (2-га)
- 15,032551 eV Порівняти Енергія йонізації (2-га) усіх елементів →
- Енергія йонізації (3-тя)
- 31,93741 eV Порівняти Енергія йонізації (3-тя) усіх елементів →
- Енергія йонізації (4-та)
- 42,332706 eV Порівняти Енергія йонізації (4-та) усіх елементів →
- Енергія йонізації (5-та)
- 68,800237 eV Порівняти Енергія йонізації (5-та) усіх елементів →
- Ступені окиснення
- −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 Порівняти Ступені окиснення усіх елементів →
- Валентні електрони
- 4 Порівняти Валентні електрони усіх елементів →
- Електронна конфігурація
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
Термодинамічні
- Теплота плавлення
- 0,04943774 eV Порівняти Теплота плавлення усіх елементів →
- Теплота випаровування
- 1,860393 eV Порівняти Теплота випаровування усіх елементів →
- Теплота сублімації
- 2,023112 eV
- Теплота атомізації
- 2,023112 eV
- Ентальпія атомізації
- 2,023112 eV
Ядерні
- Протони
- 82 Порівняти Протони усіх елементів →
- Нейтрони
- 126 Порівняти Нейтрони усіх елементів →
- Відомі ізотопи
- 43 Порівняти Відомі ізотопи усіх елементів →
- Стабільні ізотопи
- 0 Порівняти Стабільні ізотопи усіх елементів →
- Найстабільніший ізотоп
- Pb-208
- Рік відкриття
- 2021
Поширеність
- Вміст (земна кора)
- 14 мг/кг Порівняти Вміст (земна кора) усіх елементів →
- Вміст (океан)
- 3 × 10−5 мг/л Порівняти Вміст (океан) усіх елементів →
Кристалічна структура
- Стала ґратки a
- 495 pm
Електронна будова
- Електрони за оболонками
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 Порівняти Електрони за оболонками усіх елементів →
Ідентифікатори
- Номер CAS
- 7439-92-1 Порівняти Номер CAS усіх елементів →
- Символ терма
- (1/2,1/2)0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Pb
- Ключ InChI
- WABPQHHGFIMREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Електронна конфігурація Виміряно
Pb: 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²Модель атома
Ізотопи відрізняються кількістю нейтронів, масою та стабільністю, але не електронною конфігурацією нейтрального атома.
Схематична модель атома, без дотримання масштабу.
Атомний відбиток
Спектр випромінювання / поглинання
Ізотопний розподіл
Стабільних ізотопів немає.
| Масове число | Атомна маса (u) | Природний вміст | Період напіврозпаду |
|---|---|---|---|
| 183 Радіоактивний | 182,991872 ± 0,00003 | Немає даних | 535 мс |
| 184 Радіоактивний | 183,988136 ± 0,000014 | Немає даних | 490 мс |
| 178 Радіоактивний | 178,003831 ± 0,000026 | Немає даних | 250 us |
| 215 Радіоактивний | 215,00474 ± 0,00011 | Немає даних | 142 секунд |
| 204 Радіоактивний | 203,973044 ± 0,0000013 | 1,4000% | 140 Py |
Фаза / стан
Причина: на 302,5 °C нижче температури плавлення (327,46 °C)
Схематично, без дотримання масштабу
Точки фазових переходів
Енергії переходів
Енергія, необхідна для плавлення 1 моль за температури плавлення
Енергія, необхідна для випаровування 1 моль за температури кипіння
Енергія, необхідна для сублімації 1 моль за температури сублімації
Густина
За стандартних умов
За стандартних умов
Атомні спектри
Показано 10 з 82. Відсортовано за зарядом йона (за зростанням).
Наявні дані про лінії ?
| Йон | Заряд | Загальна кількість ліній | Імовірності переходів | Позначення рівнів |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pb I | 0 | 135 | 28 | 135 |
| Pb II | +1 | 97 | 3 | 12 |
| Pb III | +2 | 41 | 0 | 0 |
| Pb IV | +3 | 92 | 0 | 0 |
| Pb V | +4 | 90 | 0 | 0 |
Наявні дані про рівні ?
| Йон | Заряд | Рівні |
|---|---|---|
| Pb I | 0 | 136 |
| Pb II | +1 | 95 |
| Pb III | +2 | 124 |
| Pb IV | +3 | 108 |
| Pb V | +4 | 45 |
| Pb VI | +5 | 2 |
| Pb VII | +6 | 2 |
| Pb VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Pb IX | +8 | 2 |
| Pb X | +9 | 2 |
Йонні радіуси
Показано 10 з 12.
| Заряд | Координація | Спін | Радіус |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 4 | Немає даних | 98 пм |
| +2 | 6 | Немає даних | 119 пм |
| +2 | 7 | Немає даних | 123 пм |
| +2 | 8 | Немає даних | 129 пм |
| +2 | 9 | Немає даних | 135 пм |
| +2 | 10 | Немає даних | 140 пм |
| +2 | 11 | Немає даних | 145 пм |
| +2 | 12 | Немає даних | 149 пм |
| +4 | 4 | Немає даних | 65 пм |
| +4 | 5 | Немає даних | 73 пм |
Сполуки
Ізотопи (5)
| Масове число | Атомна маса (u) | Природний вміст | Період напіврозпаду | Тип розпаду | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 183 Радіоактивний | 182,991872 ± 0,00003 | Немає даних | 535 мс | α ≈100%β+ ? | |
| 184 Радіоактивний | 183,988136 ± 0,000014 | Немає даних | 490 мс | α =80±1.1%β+ ? | |
| 178 Радіоактивний | 178,003831 ± 0,000026 | Немає даних | 250 us | α ≈100%β+ ? | |
| 215 Радіоактивний | 215,00474 ± 0,00011 | Немає даних | 142 секунд | β- =100% | |
| 204 Радіоактивний | 203,973044 ± 0,0000013 | 1,4000% ± 0,1000% | 140 Py | IS =1.4±0.6%α ? |
Спектральні лінії
| Довжина хвилі (нм) | Інтенсивність | Ступінь йонізації | Тип | Перехід | Точність | Джерело | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 401.96322 нм | 15000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 405.780659 нм | 95000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 406.213593 нм | 14000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[3/2]* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 415.78144 нм | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.9s (1/2,1/2)* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 416.80327 нм | 10000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 434.041263 нм | 200 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).7d 2[3/2]* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 500.54165 нм | 1000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (3/2,1/2)* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 500.65724 нм | 100 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 507.6322 нм | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 508.94835 нм | 50 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 509.00083 нм | 20 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 510.72427 нм | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 520.14372 нм | 2000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 569.23465 нм | 40 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).5f 2[5/2] | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 589.56245 нм | 200 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 600.18624 нм | 2000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 601.16667 нм | 500 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 605.93556 нм | 500 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 611.05203 нм | 50 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 623.52656 нм | 100 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 689.2117 нм | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).10d 2[5/2]* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 712.893 нм | 5 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.11s (1/2,1/2)* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 722.89658 нм | 20000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 730.46753 нм | 5 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).9d 2[3/2]* | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 733.0146 нм | 8 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) | Виміряно | NIST | |
| 734.6676 нм | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).9d 2[5/2]* | Виміряно | NIST |
Розширені дані про властивості
Ковалентні радіуси (розширені дані)
- Ковалентний радіус (за Пююккьо)
- 144 pm
- Ковалентний радіус (за Пююккьо, подвійний зв’язок)
- 135 pm
- Ковалентний радіус (за Пююккьо, потрійний зв’язок)
- 137 pm
Радіуси ван дер Ваальса
- Bondi
- 202 pm
- Batsanov
- 230 pm
- Alvarez
- 260 pm
- UFF
- 429,7 pm
- MM3
- 274 pm
Атомні та металічні радіуси
- Атомний радіус (за Рамом)
- 249 pm
- Металічний радіус (C12)
- 170 pm
Шкали нумерації
- Mendeleev
- 91
- Pettifor
- 82
- Glawe
- 82
Шкали електронегативності
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 4
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 4
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
Поляризовність і дисперсія
- Дипольна поляризовність
- 47 a.u.
- Дипольна поляризовність (невизначеність)
- 3 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 534 Ha·Bohr6
Параметри Мідеми
- Молярний об’єм за Мідемою
- 18,28 cm3/mol
- Електронна густина за Мідемою
- 2
Ризики постачання та економіка
- Концентрація виробництва
- 44
- Відносний ризик постачання
- 6
- Розподіл запасів
- 34
- Політична стабільність (найбільший виробник)
- 24
- Політична стабільність (країна з найбільшими запасами)
- 75
Фазові переходи та алотропні модифікації
| Температура плавлення | 600,61 K |
| Температура кипіння | 2022,15 K |
Категорії ступенів окиснення
Розширені довідкові дані
Сталі екранування (15)
| n | Орбіталь | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1,5805 |
| 2 | p | 4,5234 |
| 2 | s | 21,57 |
| 3 | d | 13,4533 |
| 3 | p | 22,8505 |
| 3 | s | 23,8477 |
| 4 | d | 37,6804 |
| 4 | f | 38,0312 |
| 4 | p | 35,9664 |
| 4 | s | 35,1072 |
Докладні дані про кристалічні радіуси (12)
| Заряд | CN | Спін | rcrystal (pm) | Походження |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | IVPY | 112 | calculated, | |
| 2 | VI | 133 | ||
| 2 | VII | 137 | calculated, | |
| 2 | VIII | 143 | calculated, | |
| 2 | IX | 149 | calculated, | |
| 2 | X | 154 | calculated, | |
| 2 | XI | 159 | calculated, | |
| 2 | XII | 163 | ||
| 4 | IV | 79 | estimated, | |
| 4 | V | 87 | estimated, |
Типи розпаду ізотопів (59)
| Ізотоп | Режим | Інтенсивність |
|---|---|---|
| 178 | A | 100% |
| 178 | B+ | — |
| 179 | A | 100% |
| 180 | A | 100% |
| 181 | A | 100% |
| 181 | B+ | — |
| 182 | A | 100% |
| 182 | B+ | — |
| 183 | A | 100% |
| 183 | B+ | — |
Фактори розсіяння рентгенівського випромінювання (516)
| Енергія (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 4,6699 |
| 10,1617 | — | 4,72735 |
| 10,3261 | — | 4,78551 |
| 10,4931 | — | 4,84439 |
| 10,6628 | — | 4,83957 |
| 10,8353 | — | 4,83203 |
| 11,0106 | — | 4,82451 |
| 11,1886 | — | 4,817 |
| 11,3696 | — | 4,7889 |
| 11,5535 | — | 4,7596 |
Додаткові дані
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.4×101 milligrams per kilogram
Джерела (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
3×10-5 milligrams per liter
Джерела (1)
Sources
Sources of this element.
Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.
Джерела (1)
- [6] Lead https://periodic.lanl.gov/82.shtml
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..
The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..
210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..
Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..
Джерела (13)
- [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).
- [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).
- [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).
- [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).
- [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010).
- [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.
- [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008).
- [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).
- [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).
- [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).
- [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).
- [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online.
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
Джерела
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Lead.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.