Lead (Pb)
post-transition-metalSolid
ప్రామాణిక పరమాణు భారం
207.2 u [206.14, 207.94]ఎలక్ట్రాన్ విన్యాసం
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2ద్రవీభవన స్థానం
327.46 °Cమరుగు స్థానం
1748.85 °Cసాంద్రత
1.1342e+4 kg/m³ఆక్సీకరణ స్థితులు
−4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4విద్యుదృణాత్మకత (పాలింగ్)
2.33అయనీకరణ శక్తి (1వ)
7.41668 eVఆవిష్కరణ సంవత్సరం
2021పరమాణు వ్యాసార్థం
180 pmవివరాలు
Lead is a dense, soft post-transition metal with atomic number 82. It is chemically characterized by the +2 oxidation state, with +4 less stable except in selected compounds, a pattern influenced by the inert-pair effect. Lead has been used since antiquity because it is easily smelted and worked, but its toxicity now strongly limits dispersive uses. It remains important where high density, corrosion resistance, low melting point, and radiation attenuation are valuable.
Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright luster. It is very soft, highly malleable, ductile, and a poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service. It is used in containers for corrosive liquids (such as sulfuric acid) and may be toughened by the addition of a small percentage of antimony or other metals.
The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon lead, which is of unknown origin. The element was known from prehistoric times. The chemical symbol Pb is derived from the Latin plumbum.
<!-- --> <p class="caption">For more information about the natural variations of the atomic weight of lead please read IUPAC Technical Report Variation of lead isotopic composition and atomic weight in terrestrial materials (IUPAC Technical Report) <img src="images/pdf.gif" style="width:auto; margin:0; vertical-align:bottom;"> by Z.-K. Zhu et al Pure Appl. Chem. <strong>93</strong>, 155-166 (2021).
Lead has been known since ancient times. It is sometimes found free in nature, but is usually obtained from the ores galena (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3) and minum (Pb3O4). Although lead makes up only about 0.0013% of the earth's crust, it is not considered to be a rare element since it is easily mined and refined. Most lead is obtained by roasting galena in hot air, although nearly one third of the lead used in the United States is obtained through recycling efforts.
Long known, mentioned in Exodus. The alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated with the planet Saturn. Native lead occurs in nature, but is rare.
Pure lead is a bluish-gray, lustrous metal when freshly cut. It tarnishes in air to a dull gray surface as oxide and carbonate films form. It is very soft, malleable, and dense, with a low melting point for a metal.
Lead is used in lead–acid batteries, which remain its dominant application. Metallic lead and lead alloys are also used for radiation shielding, ballast, weights, cable sheathing, and some solders or fusible alloys where regulations allow. Historically it was used in pipes, roofing, pigments, ammunition, gasoline additives, and paints, but many such uses have been restricted or eliminated because they release lead to people or the environment.
Lead is a soft, malleable and corrosion resistant material. The ancient Romans used lead to make water pipes, some of which are still in use today. Unfortunately for the ancient Romans, lead is a cumulative poison and the decline of the Roman empire has been blamed, in part, on lead in the water supply. Lead is used to line tanks that store corrosive liquids, such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Lead's high density makes it useful as a shield against X-ray and gamma-ray radiation and is used in X-ray machines and nuclear reactors. Lead is also used as a covering on some wires and cables to protect them from corrosion, as a material to absorb vibrations and sounds and in the manufacture of ammunition. Most of the lead used today is used in the production on lead-acid storage batteries, such as the batteries found in automobiles.
Several lead alloys are widely used. Solder, an alloy that is nearly half lead and half tin, is a material with a relatively low melting point that is used to join electrical components, pipes and other metallic items. Type metal, an alloy of lead, tin and antimony, is a material used to make the type used in printing presses and plates. Babbit metal, another lead alloy, is used to reduce friction in bearings.
Lead forms many useful compounds. Lead monoxide (PbO), also known as litharge, is a yellow solid that is used to make some types of glass, such as lead crystal and flint glass, in the vulcanizing of rubber and as a paint pigment. Lead dioxide (PbO2) is a brown material that is used in lead-acid storage batteries. Trilead tetraoxide (Pb3O4), also known as red lead, is used to make a reddish-brown paint that prevents rust on outdoor steel structures. Lead arsenate (Pb3(AsO4)2) has been used as an insecticide although other, less harmful, substances have now largely replaced it. Lead carbonate (PbCO3), also known as cerussite, is a white, poisonous substance that was once widely used as a pigment for white paint. Use of lead carbonate in paints has largely been stopped in favor of titanium oxide (TiO2). Lead sulfate (PbSO4), also known as anglesite, is used in a paint pigment known as sublimed white lead. Lead chromate (PbCrO4), also known as crocoite, is used to produce chrome yellow paint. Lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) is used to make fireworks and other pyrotechnics. Lead silicate (PbSiO3) is used to make some types of glass and in the production of rubber and paints.
The metal is very effective as a sound absorber, is used as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment and nuclear reactors, and is used to absorb vibration. White lead, the basic carbonate, sublimed white lead, chrome yellow, and other lead compounds are used extensively in paints, although in recent years the use of lead in paints has been drastically curtailed to eliminate or reduce health hazards.
Lead oxide is used in producing fine "crystal glass" and "flint glass" of a high index of refraction for achromatic lenses. The nitrate and the acetate are soluble salts. Lead salts such as lead arsenate have been used as insecticides, but their use in recent years has been practically eliminated in favor of less harmful organic compounds.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
The study of lead isotopic compositions is used to model the distribution of pollution in water and on land (Fig. IUPAC.82.1). For example, in one study of Lake Härsvatten in Sweden, the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(207Pb) measured at different sediment depths in different areas throughout the lake showed patterns of accumulation of lead pollution. In some cases, these patterns could be related to sediment distribution patterns. Another study used 210Pb (with a half-life of 22.6 years) dating methods to study the vertical accretion of sediments in canals and wetland areas in Louisiana over the last 80 to 100 years [541] R. Bindler, I. Renberg, M. L. Brannvall, O. Emteryd, F. El Daoushy. Limnol. Oceanogr.46, 178 (2001)., [542] R. D. DeLaune, J. H. Whitcomb, W. H. Patrick, J. H. Pardue, S. R. Pezeshki. Estuaries12, 247 (1989)..
Three of the stable isotopes of lead (206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb) are produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium and thorium (238U, 235U, and 232Th, respectively) and are largely unaffected by environmental and metallurgical processes. Therefore, by examining various isotope-amount ratios of lead isotopes, it is possible to approximate the age of a material. It is also possible to use this information to trace the origins of an object or material [543] R. W. Hurst. Environ. Geosci.9, 1 (2002)., [544] University of Arizona. Clues To African Archaeology Found In Lead Isotopes, ScienceDaily (2014), Feb. 25; http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/04/060404204102.htm., [545] M. Tatsumoto, J. N. Rosholt. Science167, 461 (1970)., [546] R. H. Brill. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A Mathematical and Physical Sciences.269, 143 (1970)..
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..
The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..
210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..
Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
The three natural radioactive-decay chains beginning with 238U, 235U, and 232Th each have comparable half-lives that are much longer than the radioactive isotopes that follow until the production of stable isotopes of 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb, respectively. Therefore, one can measure the relative amounts of the radiogenic isotopes of lead to determine the length of time that has elapsed since uranium and thorium atoms were incorporated into rocks and minerals. Typically, this method is used to date minerals that are tens of millions to billions of years old. The uranium-lead dating method was used to determine some of the first accurate ages of the Earth (about 4.55×109 years) [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)., [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)..
Lead chemistry is dominated by Pb²⁺ compounds, including lead(II) oxide (PbO), lead(II) sulfide (PbS), lead(II) carbonate (PbCO₃), and lead(II) sulfate (PbSO₄). Lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂) is an important oxidizing compound and a key electrode material in lead–acid batteries. Tetraethyllead (Pb(C₂H₅)₄) was formerly used as an antiknock gasoline additive. Many lead salts are sparingly soluble, but solubility and bioavailability depend strongly on pH, ligands, and particle size.
Natural lead is a mixture of four stable isotopes: 204Pb (1.48%), 206Pb (23.6%), 207Pb (22.6%), and 208Pb (52.3%). Lead isotopes are the end products of each of the three series of naturally occurring radioactive elements: 206Pb for the uranium series, 207Pb for the actinium series, and 208Pb for the thorium series. Twenty seven other isotopes of lead, all of which are radioactive, are recognized.
Its alloys include solder, type metal, and various antifriction metals. Great quantities of lead, both as the metal and as the dioxide, are used in storage batteries. Much metal also goes into cable covering, plumbing, ammunition, and in the manufacture of lead tetraethyl.
See more information at the Lead compound page.
Lead and many lead compounds are cumulative poisons. Exposure can damage the nervous system, blood formation, kidneys, and reproduction, with children especially sensitive to neurodevelopmental effects. Major hazards come from dust, fumes, contaminated soil, old paint, plumbing, ammunition residues, and some industrial processes. Metallic lead is less readily absorbed than soluble salts or fine particles but is not considered safe for ingestion or uncontrolled handling.
Care must be used in handling lead as it is a cumulative poison. Environmental concerns with lead poisoning has resulted in a national program to eliminate the lead in gasoline.
Lead occurs naturally in minerals, especially galena, and enters soils and sediments through weathering, mining, smelting, combustion residues, old paints, ammunition, and legacy gasoline emissions. It is not degraded chemically and tends to bind to particles, organic matter, sulfides, and carbonates. Mobility increases in acidic or complexing conditions. Biological accumulation occurs, but lead is not an essential nutrient and can harm wildlife at elevated exposure levels.
Lead is produced chiefly from sulfide ores, often in association with zinc, silver, and copper. Primary production involves concentration, roasting or direct smelting, and refining. Recycling is central to supply, especially from spent lead–acid batteries, because the metal can be recovered efficiently and repeatedly. Demand is closely tied to battery manufacture, while regulations and substitution have reduced markets in pigments, plumbing, fuel additives, and many consumer products.
Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.
Lead is relatively abundant among the heaviest stable elements because several isotopes are end products of natural radioactive decay chains and are also produced by slow neutron capture in stars. ²⁰⁸Pb is especially stable, with closed proton and neutron shells. In planetary materials, lead is chalcophile and commonly follows sulfur into sulfide minerals rather than remaining evenly distributed in silicates.
- Lead–acid batteries use both lead (Pb) and lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂) as active electrode materials.
- The symbol Pb comes from the Latin name plumbum.
- Fresh lead is noticeably brighter than the dull surface usually seen in air.
- Lead shot and bullets are a continuing source of localized environmental contamination.
- ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb are final products of major natural decay chains.
- Lead’s softness allows it to be scratched with a fingernail under ordinary conditions.
చిత్రాలు
లక్షణాలు
భౌతిక
- పరమాణు వ్యాసార్థం (అనుభవాధారిత)
- 180 pm అన్ని మూలకాల పరమాణు వ్యాసార్థం (అనుభవాధారిత) పోల్చండి →
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- 146 pm అన్ని మూలకాల సంయోజనీయ వ్యాసార్థం పోల్చండి →
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- లోహ వ్యాసార్థం
- 150 pm అన్ని మూలకాల లోహ వ్యాసార్థం పోల్చండి →
- సాంద్రత
- 1.1342 × 104 kg/m³ అన్ని మూలకాల సాంద్రత పోల్చండి →
- మోలార్ ఘనపరిమాణం
- 0.0183 L/mol
- STP వద్ద దశ
- ఘనం అన్ని మూలకాల STP వద్ద దశ పోల్చండి →
- ద్రవీభవన స్థానం
- 327.46 °C అన్ని మూలకాల ద్రవీభవన స్థానం పోల్చండి →
- మరుగు స్థానం
- 1748.85 °C అన్ని మూలకాల మరుగు స్థానం పోల్చండి →
- ఉష్ణ వాహకత
- 35.3 W/(m·K) అన్ని మూలకాల ఉష్ణ వాహకత పోల్చండి →
- విశిష్ట ఉష్ణ సామర్థ్యం
- 0.13 J/(g·K) అన్ని మూలకాల విశిష్ట ఉష్ణ సామర్థ్యం పోల్చండి →
- మోలార్ ఉష్ణ సామర్థ్యం
- 26.84 J/(mol·K) అన్ని మూలకాల మోలార్ ఉష్ణ సామర్థ్యం పోల్చండి →
- స్ఫటిక నిర్మాణం
- ముఖకేంద్రిత ఘనాకార అన్ని మూలకాల స్ఫటిక నిర్మాణం పోల్చండి →
రసాయన
- విద్యుదృణాత్మకత (పాలింగ్)
- 2.33 అన్ని మూలకాల విద్యుదృణాత్మకత (పాలింగ్) పోల్చండి →
- విద్యుదృణాత్మకత (అలెన్)
- 1.854
- ఎలక్ట్రాన్ బంధుత్వం
- 0.364 eV
- అయనీకరణ శక్తి (1వ)
- 7.41668 eV అన్ని మూలకాల అయనీకరణ శక్తి (1వ) పోల్చండి →
- అయనీకరణ శక్తి (2వ)
- 15.032551 eV అన్ని మూలకాల అయనీకరణ శక్తి (2వ) పోల్చండి →
- అయనీకరణ శక్తి (3వ)
- 31.93741 eV అన్ని మూలకాల అయనీకరణ శక్తి (3వ) పోల్చండి →
- అయనీకరణ శక్తి (4వ)
- 42.332706 eV అన్ని మూలకాల అయనీకరణ శక్తి (4వ) పోల్చండి →
- అయనీకరణ శక్తి (5వ)
- 68.800237 eV అన్ని మూలకాల అయనీకరణ శక్తి (5వ) పోల్చండి →
- ఆక్సీకరణ స్థితులు
- −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 అన్ని మూలకాల ఆక్సీకరణ స్థితులు పోల్చండి →
- సంయోజక ఎలక్ట్రాన్లు
- 4 అన్ని మూలకాల సంయోజక ఎలక్ట్రాన్లు పోల్చండి →
- ఎలక్ట్రాన్ విన్యాసం
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
ఉష్ణగతిక
- ద్రవీభవన ఉష్ణం
- 0.04943774 eV అన్ని మూలకాల ద్రవీభవన ఉష్ణం పోల్చండి →
- బాష్పీభవన ఉష్ణం
- 1.860393 eV అన్ని మూలకాల బాష్పీభవన ఉష్ణం పోల్చండి →
- ఉత్పతన ఉష్ణం
- 2.023112 eV
- పరమాణీకరణ ఉష్ణం
- 2.023112 eV
- పరమాణీకరణ ఎంథాల్పీ
- 2.023112 eV
కేంద్రక
- ప్రోటాన్లు
- 82 అన్ని మూలకాల ప్రోటాన్లు పోల్చండి →
- న్యూట్రాన్లు
- 126 అన్ని మూలకాల న్యూట్రాన్లు పోల్చండి →
- తెలిసిన సమస్థానికాలు
- 43 అన్ని మూలకాల తెలిసిన సమస్థానికాలు పోల్చండి →
- స్థిరమైన సమస్థానికాలు
- 0 అన్ని మూలకాల స్థిరమైన సమస్థానికాలు పోల్చండి →
- అత్యంత స్థిరమైన సమస్థానికం
- Pb-208
- ఆవిష్కరణ సంవత్సరం
- 2021
సమృద్ధి
- సమృద్ధి (భూపటలం)
- 14 mg/kg అన్ని మూలకాల సమృద్ధి (భూపటలం) పోల్చండి →
- సమృద్ధి (సముద్రం)
- 3 × 10−5 mg/L అన్ని మూలకాల సమృద్ధి (సముద్రం) పోల్చండి →
స్ఫటిక నిర్మాణం
- జాలక స్థిరాంకం a
- 495 pm
ఎలక్ట్రానిక్ నిర్మాణం
- ప్రతి కక్ష్యలో ఎలక్ట్రాన్లు
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 అన్ని మూలకాల ప్రతి కక్ష్యలో ఎలక్ట్రాన్లు పోల్చండి →
గుర్తింపులు
- CAS సంఖ్య
- 7439-92-1 అన్ని మూలకాల CAS సంఖ్య పోల్చండి →
- టర్మ్ సంకేతం
- (1/2,1/2)0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Pb
- InChI కీ
- WABPQHHGFIMREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
ఎలక్ట్రాన్ విన్యాసం కొలవబడినది
Pb: 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²పరమాణు నమూనా
సమస్థానికాలు న్యూట్రాన్ల సంఖ్య, ద్రవ్యరాశి, స్థిరత్వాన్ని మారుస్తాయి — తటస్థ పరమాణువు యొక్క ఎలక్ట్రాన్ విన్యాసాన్ని కాదు.
రూపరేఖాత్మక పరమాణు నమూనా, ప్రమాణానుసారం కాదు.
పరమాణు ప్రత్యేక గుర్తింపు
ఉద్గార / శోషణ వర్ణపటం
సమస్థానిక పంపిణీ
స్థిరమైన సమస్థానికాలు లేవు.
| ద్రవ్యరాశి సంఖ్య | పరమాణు ద్రవ్యరాశి (u) | సహజ సమృద్ధి | అర్ధాయుష్షు |
|---|---|---|---|
| 183 రేడియోధార్మిక | 182.991872 ± 0.00003 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 535 ms |
| 184 రేడియోధార్మిక | 183.988136 ± 0.000014 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 490 ms |
| 178 రేడియోధార్మిక | 178.003831 ± 0.000026 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 250 us |
| 215 రేడియోధార్మిక | 215.00474 ± 0.00011 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 142 సెకన్లు |
| 204 రేడియోధార్మిక | 203.973044 ± 0.0000013 | 1.4000% | 140 Py |
దశ / స్థితి
కారణం: ద్రవీభవన స్థానం (327.46 °C) కంటే 302.5 °C తక్కువ
రూపరేఖ మాత్రమే, ప్రమాణానుసారం కాదు
దశ పరివర్తన స్థానాలు
పరివర్తన శక్తులు
ద్రవీభవన స్థానం వద్ద 1 molను ద్రవీభవింపజేయడానికి అవసరమైన శక్తి
మరుగు స్థానం వద్ద 1 molను బాష్పీభవింపజేయడానికి అవసరమైన శక్తి
ఉత్పతన స్థానం వద్ద 1 molను ఉత్పతనం చేయడానికి అవసరమైన శక్తి
సాంద్రత
ప్రామాణిక పరిస్థితుల వద్ద
ప్రామాణిక పరిస్థితుల వద్ద
పరమాణు వర్ణపటాలు
మొత్తం 82లో 10 చూపించబడుతున్నాయి. అయాన్ ఆవేశం ఆధారంగా ఆరోహణ క్రమంలో అమర్చబడింది.
అందుబాటులో ఉన్న వర్ణపట రేఖల సమాచారం ?
| అయాన్ | ఆవేశం | మొత్తం రేఖలు | పరివర్తన సంభావ్యతలు | స్థాయి గుర్తింపులు |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pb I | 0 | 135 | 28 | 135 |
| Pb II | +1 | 97 | 3 | 12 |
| Pb III | +2 | 41 | 0 | 0 |
| Pb IV | +3 | 92 | 0 | 0 |
| Pb V | +4 | 90 | 0 | 0 |
అందుబాటులో ఉన్న శక్తి స్థాయుల సమాచారం ?
| అయాన్ | ఆవేశం | స్థాయులు |
|---|---|---|
| Pb I | 0 | 136 |
| Pb II | +1 | 95 |
| Pb III | +2 | 124 |
| Pb IV | +3 | 108 |
| Pb V | +4 | 45 |
| Pb VI | +5 | 2 |
| Pb VII | +6 | 2 |
| Pb VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Pb IX | +8 | 2 |
| Pb X | +9 | 2 |
అయానిక్ వ్యాసార్థాలు
మొత్తం 12లో 10 చూపించబడుతున్నాయి.
| ఆవేశం | సమన్వయం | స్పిన్ | వ్యాసార్థం |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 4 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 98 pm |
| +2 | 6 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 119 pm |
| +2 | 7 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 123 pm |
| +2 | 8 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 129 pm |
| +2 | 9 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 135 pm |
| +2 | 10 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 140 pm |
| +2 | 11 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 145 pm |
| +2 | 12 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 149 pm |
| +4 | 4 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 65 pm |
| +4 | 5 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 73 pm |
సమ్మేళనాలు
సమస్థానికాలు (5)
| ద్రవ్యరాశి సంఖ్య | పరమాణు ద్రవ్యరాశి (u) | సహజ సమృద్ధి | అర్ధాయుష్షు | క్షయ విధానం | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 183 రేడియోధార్మిక | 182.991872 ± 0.00003 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 535 ms | α ≈100%β+ ? | |
| 184 రేడియోధార్మిక | 183.988136 ± 0.000014 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 490 ms | α =80±1.1%β+ ? | |
| 178 రేడియోధార్మిక | 178.003831 ± 0.000026 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 250 us | α ≈100%β+ ? | |
| 215 రేడియోధార్మిక | 215.00474 ± 0.00011 | అందుబాటులో లేదు | 142 సెకన్లు | β- =100% | |
| 204 రేడియోధార్మిక | 203.973044 ± 0.0000013 | 1.4000% ± 0.1000% | 140 Py | IS =1.4±0.6%α ? |
వర్ణపట రేఖలు
| తరంగదైర్ఘ్యం (nm) | తీవ్రత | అయాన్ దశ | రకం | పరివర్తన | ఖచ్చితత్వం | మూలం | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 401.96322 nm | 15000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 405.780659 nm | 95000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 406.213593 nm | 14000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[3/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 415.78144 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.9s (1/2,1/2)* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 416.80327 nm | 10000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 434.041263 nm | 200 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).7d 2[3/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 500.54165 nm | 1000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (3/2,1/2)* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 500.65724 nm | 100 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 507.6322 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 508.94835 nm | 50 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 509.00083 nm | 20 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 510.72427 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 520.14372 nm | 2000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 569.23465 nm | 40 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).5f 2[5/2] | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 589.56245 nm | 200 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 600.18624 nm | 2000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 601.16667 nm | 500 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 605.93556 nm | 500 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 611.05203 nm | 50 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 623.52656 nm | 100 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 689.2117 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).10d 2[5/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 712.893 nm | 5 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.11s (1/2,1/2)* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 722.89658 nm | 20000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 730.46753 nm | 5 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).9d 2[3/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 733.0146 nm | 8 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) | కొలవబడినది | NIST | |
| 734.6676 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).9d 2[5/2]* | కొలవబడినది | NIST |
విస్తృత లక్షణాలు
సంయోజనీయ వ్యాసార్థాలు (విస్తృత)
- సంయోజనీయ వ్యాసార్థం (ప్యుక్కో)
- 144 pm
- సంయోజనీయ వ్యాసార్థం (ప్యుక్కో, ద్విబంధం)
- 135 pm
- సంయోజనీయ వ్యాసార్థం (ప్యుక్కో, త్రిబంధం)
- 137 pm
వాన్ డర్ వాల్స్ వ్యాసార్థాలు
- Bondi
- 202 pm
- Batsanov
- 230 pm
- Alvarez
- 260 pm
- UFF
- 429.7 pm
- MM3
- 274 pm
పరమాణు మరియు లోహ వ్యాసార్థాలు
- పరమాణు వ్యాసార్థం (రామ్)
- 249 pm
- లోహ వ్యాసార్థం (C12)
- 170 pm
సంఖ్యాక్రమ ప్రమాణాలు
- Mendeleev
- 91
- Pettifor
- 82
- Glawe
- 82
విద్యుదృణాత్మకత ప్రమాణాలు
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 4
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 4
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
ధ్రువణీయత మరియు విక్షేపణం
- ద్విధ్రువ ధ్రువణీయత
- 47 a.u.
- ద్విధ్రువ ధ్రువణీయత (అనిశ్చితి)
- 3 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 534 Ha·Bohr6
మీడెమా పరామితులు
- మీడెమా మోలార్ ఘనపరిమాణం
- 18.28 cm3/mol
- మీడెమా ఎలక్ట్రాన్ సాంద్రత
- 2
సరఫరా ప్రమాదం మరియు ఆర్థిక అంశాలు
- ఉత్పత్తి కేంద్రీకరణ
- 44
- సాపేక్ష సరఫరా ప్రమాదం
- 6
- నిల్వల పంపిణీ
- 34
- రాజకీయ స్థిరత్వం (అగ్ర ఉత్పత్తిదారు)
- 24
- రాజకీయ స్థిరత్వం (అత్యధిక నిల్వలు గల దేశం)
- 75
దశ పరివర్తనలు మరియు భిన్నరూపాలు
| ద్రవీభవన స్థానం | 600.61 K |
| మరుగు స్థానం | 2022.15 K |
ఆక్సీకరణ స్థితి వర్గాలు
ఉన్నత స్థాయి సూచన సమాచారం
పరిరక్షణ స్థిరాంకాలు (15)
| n | ఆర్బిటాల్ | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.5805 |
| 2 | p | 4.5234 |
| 2 | s | 21.57 |
| 3 | d | 13.4533 |
| 3 | p | 22.8505 |
| 3 | s | 23.8477 |
| 4 | d | 37.6804 |
| 4 | f | 38.0312 |
| 4 | p | 35.9664 |
| 4 | s | 35.1072 |
స్ఫటిక వ్యాసార్థాల వివరాలు (12)
| ఆవేశం | CN | స్పిన్ | rcrystal (pm) | మూలం |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | IVPY | 112 | calculated, | |
| 2 | VI | 133 | ||
| 2 | VII | 137 | calculated, | |
| 2 | VIII | 143 | calculated, | |
| 2 | IX | 149 | calculated, | |
| 2 | X | 154 | calculated, | |
| 2 | XI | 159 | calculated, | |
| 2 | XII | 163 | ||
| 4 | IV | 79 | estimated, | |
| 4 | V | 87 | estimated, |
సమస్థానిక క్షయ విధానాలు (59)
| సమస్థానికం | మోడ్ | తీవ్రత |
|---|---|---|
| 178 | A | 100% |
| 178 | B+ | — |
| 179 | A | 100% |
| 180 | A | 100% |
| 181 | A | 100% |
| 181 | B+ | — |
| 182 | A | 100% |
| 182 | B+ | — |
| 183 | A | 100% |
| 183 | B+ | — |
X‑కిరణ పరిక్షేపణ కారకాలు (516)
| శక్తి (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 4.6699 |
| 10.1617 | — | 4.72735 |
| 10.3261 | — | 4.78551 |
| 10.4931 | — | 4.84439 |
| 10.6628 | — | 4.83957 |
| 10.8353 | — | 4.83203 |
| 11.0106 | — | 4.82451 |
| 11.1886 | — | 4.817 |
| 11.3696 | — | 4.7889 |
| 11.5535 | — | 4.7596 |
అదనపు సమాచారం
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.4×101 milligrams per kilogram
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Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
3×10-5 milligrams per liter
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Sources
Sources of this element.
Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.
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- [6] Lead https://periodic.lanl.gov/82.shtml
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..
The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..
210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..
Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..
మూలాధారాలు (13)
- [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).
- [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).
- [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).
- [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).
- [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010).
- [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.
- [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008).
- [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).
- [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).
- [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).
- [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).
- [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online.
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
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Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Lead.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.