Lead (Pb)
post-transition-metalSolid
प्रमाणित अणुभार
207.2 u [२०६.१४, २०७.९४]इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2द्रवणांक
327.46 °Cउत्कलनांक
1748.85 °Cघनता
1.1342e+4 kg/m³ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्था
−4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4विद्युतऋणता (पॉलिंग)
2.33आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पहिली)
7.41668 eVशोधाचे वर्ष
2021अणुत्रिज्या
180 pmतपशील
Lead is a dense, soft post-transition metal with atomic number 82. It is chemically characterized by the +2 oxidation state, with +4 less stable except in selected compounds, a pattern influenced by the inert-pair effect. Lead has been used since antiquity because it is easily smelted and worked, but its toxicity now strongly limits dispersive uses. It remains important where high density, corrosion resistance, low melting point, and radiation attenuation are valuable.
Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright luster. It is very soft, highly malleable, ductile, and a poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service. It is used in containers for corrosive liquids (such as sulfuric acid) and may be toughened by the addition of a small percentage of antimony or other metals.
The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon lead, which is of unknown origin. The element was known from prehistoric times. The chemical symbol Pb is derived from the Latin plumbum.
<!-- --> <p class="caption">For more information about the natural variations of the atomic weight of lead please read IUPAC Technical Report Variation of lead isotopic composition and atomic weight in terrestrial materials (IUPAC Technical Report) <img src="images/pdf.gif" style="width:auto; margin:0; vertical-align:bottom;"> by Z.-K. Zhu et al Pure Appl. Chem. <strong>93</strong>, 155-166 (2021).
Lead has been known since ancient times. It is sometimes found free in nature, but is usually obtained from the ores galena (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3) and minum (Pb3O4). Although lead makes up only about 0.0013% of the earth's crust, it is not considered to be a rare element since it is easily mined and refined. Most lead is obtained by roasting galena in hot air, although nearly one third of the lead used in the United States is obtained through recycling efforts.
Long known, mentioned in Exodus. The alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated with the planet Saturn. Native lead occurs in nature, but is rare.
Pure lead is a bluish-gray, lustrous metal when freshly cut. It tarnishes in air to a dull gray surface as oxide and carbonate films form. It is very soft, malleable, and dense, with a low melting point for a metal.
Lead is used in lead–acid batteries, which remain its dominant application. Metallic lead and lead alloys are also used for radiation shielding, ballast, weights, cable sheathing, and some solders or fusible alloys where regulations allow. Historically it was used in pipes, roofing, pigments, ammunition, gasoline additives, and paints, but many such uses have been restricted or eliminated because they release lead to people or the environment.
Lead is a soft, malleable and corrosion resistant material. The ancient Romans used lead to make water pipes, some of which are still in use today. Unfortunately for the ancient Romans, lead is a cumulative poison and the decline of the Roman empire has been blamed, in part, on lead in the water supply. Lead is used to line tanks that store corrosive liquids, such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Lead's high density makes it useful as a shield against X-ray and gamma-ray radiation and is used in X-ray machines and nuclear reactors. Lead is also used as a covering on some wires and cables to protect them from corrosion, as a material to absorb vibrations and sounds and in the manufacture of ammunition. Most of the lead used today is used in the production on lead-acid storage batteries, such as the batteries found in automobiles.
Several lead alloys are widely used. Solder, an alloy that is nearly half lead and half tin, is a material with a relatively low melting point that is used to join electrical components, pipes and other metallic items. Type metal, an alloy of lead, tin and antimony, is a material used to make the type used in printing presses and plates. Babbit metal, another lead alloy, is used to reduce friction in bearings.
Lead forms many useful compounds. Lead monoxide (PbO), also known as litharge, is a yellow solid that is used to make some types of glass, such as lead crystal and flint glass, in the vulcanizing of rubber and as a paint pigment. Lead dioxide (PbO2) is a brown material that is used in lead-acid storage batteries. Trilead tetraoxide (Pb3O4), also known as red lead, is used to make a reddish-brown paint that prevents rust on outdoor steel structures. Lead arsenate (Pb3(AsO4)2) has been used as an insecticide although other, less harmful, substances have now largely replaced it. Lead carbonate (PbCO3), also known as cerussite, is a white, poisonous substance that was once widely used as a pigment for white paint. Use of lead carbonate in paints has largely been stopped in favor of titanium oxide (TiO2). Lead sulfate (PbSO4), also known as anglesite, is used in a paint pigment known as sublimed white lead. Lead chromate (PbCrO4), also known as crocoite, is used to produce chrome yellow paint. Lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) is used to make fireworks and other pyrotechnics. Lead silicate (PbSiO3) is used to make some types of glass and in the production of rubber and paints.
The metal is very effective as a sound absorber, is used as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment and nuclear reactors, and is used to absorb vibration. White lead, the basic carbonate, sublimed white lead, chrome yellow, and other lead compounds are used extensively in paints, although in recent years the use of lead in paints has been drastically curtailed to eliminate or reduce health hazards.
Lead oxide is used in producing fine "crystal glass" and "flint glass" of a high index of refraction for achromatic lenses. The nitrate and the acetate are soluble salts. Lead salts such as lead arsenate have been used as insecticides, but their use in recent years has been practically eliminated in favor of less harmful organic compounds.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
The study of lead isotopic compositions is used to model the distribution of pollution in water and on land (Fig. IUPAC.82.1). For example, in one study of Lake Härsvatten in Sweden, the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(207Pb) measured at different sediment depths in different areas throughout the lake showed patterns of accumulation of lead pollution. In some cases, these patterns could be related to sediment distribution patterns. Another study used 210Pb (with a half-life of 22.6 years) dating methods to study the vertical accretion of sediments in canals and wetland areas in Louisiana over the last 80 to 100 years [541] R. Bindler, I. Renberg, M. L. Brannvall, O. Emteryd, F. El Daoushy. Limnol. Oceanogr.46, 178 (2001)., [542] R. D. DeLaune, J. H. Whitcomb, W. H. Patrick, J. H. Pardue, S. R. Pezeshki. Estuaries12, 247 (1989)..
Three of the stable isotopes of lead (206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb) are produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium and thorium (238U, 235U, and 232Th, respectively) and are largely unaffected by environmental and metallurgical processes. Therefore, by examining various isotope-amount ratios of lead isotopes, it is possible to approximate the age of a material. It is also possible to use this information to trace the origins of an object or material [543] R. W. Hurst. Environ. Geosci.9, 1 (2002)., [544] University of Arizona. Clues To African Archaeology Found In Lead Isotopes, ScienceDaily (2014), Feb. 25; http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/04/060404204102.htm., [545] M. Tatsumoto, J. N. Rosholt. Science167, 461 (1970)., [546] R. H. Brill. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A Mathematical and Physical Sciences.269, 143 (1970)..
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..
The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..
210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..
Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
The three natural radioactive-decay chains beginning with 238U, 235U, and 232Th each have comparable half-lives that are much longer than the radioactive isotopes that follow until the production of stable isotopes of 206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb, respectively. Therefore, one can measure the relative amounts of the radiogenic isotopes of lead to determine the length of time that has elapsed since uranium and thorium atoms were incorporated into rocks and minerals. Typically, this method is used to date minerals that are tens of millions to billions of years old. The uranium-lead dating method was used to determine some of the first accurate ages of the Earth (about 4.55×109 years) [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)., [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)..
Lead chemistry is dominated by Pb²⁺ compounds, including lead(II) oxide (PbO), lead(II) sulfide (PbS), lead(II) carbonate (PbCO₃), and lead(II) sulfate (PbSO₄). Lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂) is an important oxidizing compound and a key electrode material in lead–acid batteries. Tetraethyllead (Pb(C₂H₅)₄) was formerly used as an antiknock gasoline additive. Many lead salts are sparingly soluble, but solubility and bioavailability depend strongly on pH, ligands, and particle size.
Natural lead is a mixture of four stable isotopes: 204Pb (1.48%), 206Pb (23.6%), 207Pb (22.6%), and 208Pb (52.3%). Lead isotopes are the end products of each of the three series of naturally occurring radioactive elements: 206Pb for the uranium series, 207Pb for the actinium series, and 208Pb for the thorium series. Twenty seven other isotopes of lead, all of which are radioactive, are recognized.
Its alloys include solder, type metal, and various antifriction metals. Great quantities of lead, both as the metal and as the dioxide, are used in storage batteries. Much metal also goes into cable covering, plumbing, ammunition, and in the manufacture of lead tetraethyl.
See more information at the Lead compound page.
Lead and many lead compounds are cumulative poisons. Exposure can damage the nervous system, blood formation, kidneys, and reproduction, with children especially sensitive to neurodevelopmental effects. Major hazards come from dust, fumes, contaminated soil, old paint, plumbing, ammunition residues, and some industrial processes. Metallic lead is less readily absorbed than soluble salts or fine particles but is not considered safe for ingestion or uncontrolled handling.
Care must be used in handling lead as it is a cumulative poison. Environmental concerns with lead poisoning has resulted in a national program to eliminate the lead in gasoline.
Lead occurs naturally in minerals, especially galena, and enters soils and sediments through weathering, mining, smelting, combustion residues, old paints, ammunition, and legacy gasoline emissions. It is not degraded chemically and tends to bind to particles, organic matter, sulfides, and carbonates. Mobility increases in acidic or complexing conditions. Biological accumulation occurs, but lead is not an essential nutrient and can harm wildlife at elevated exposure levels.
Lead is produced chiefly from sulfide ores, often in association with zinc, silver, and copper. Primary production involves concentration, roasting or direct smelting, and refining. Recycling is central to supply, especially from spent lead–acid batteries, because the metal can be recovered efficiently and repeatedly. Demand is closely tied to battery manufacture, while regulations and substitution have reduced markets in pigments, plumbing, fuel additives, and many consumer products.
Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.
Lead is relatively abundant among the heaviest stable elements because several isotopes are end products of natural radioactive decay chains and are also produced by slow neutron capture in stars. ²⁰⁸Pb is especially stable, with closed proton and neutron shells. In planetary materials, lead is chalcophile and commonly follows sulfur into sulfide minerals rather than remaining evenly distributed in silicates.
- Lead–acid batteries use both lead (Pb) and lead(IV) oxide (PbO₂) as active electrode materials.
- The symbol Pb comes from the Latin name plumbum.
- Fresh lead is noticeably brighter than the dull surface usually seen in air.
- Lead shot and bullets are a continuing source of localized environmental contamination.
- ²⁰⁶Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb are final products of major natural decay chains.
- Lead’s softness allows it to be scratched with a fingernail under ordinary conditions.
प्रतिमा
गुणधर्म
भौतिक
- अणुत्रिज्या (अनुभवाधारित)
- 180 pm सर्व घटकांच्या अणुत्रिज्या (अनुभवाधारित) ची तुलना करा →
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या
- 146 pm सर्व घटकांच्या सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या ची तुलना करा →
- व्हॅन डर वाल्स त्रिज्या
- 202 pm सर्व घटकांच्या व्हॅन डर वाल्स त्रिज्या ची तुलना करा →
- धात्विक त्रिज्या
- 150 pm सर्व घटकांच्या धात्विक त्रिज्या ची तुलना करा →
- घनता
- 1.1342 × 104 kg/m³ सर्व घटकांच्या घनता ची तुलना करा →
- मोलर आयतन
- 0.0183 L/mol
- STP येथे अवस्था
- घन सर्व घटकांच्या STP येथे अवस्था ची तुलना करा →
- द्रवणांक
- 327.46 °C सर्व घटकांच्या द्रवणांक ची तुलना करा →
- उत्कलनांक
- 1748.85 °C सर्व घटकांच्या उत्कलनांक ची तुलना करा →
- उष्णता चालकता
- 35.3 W/(m·K) सर्व घटकांच्या उष्णता चालकता ची तुलना करा →
- विशिष्ट उष्माधारकता
- 0.13 J/(g·K) सर्व घटकांच्या विशिष्ट उष्माधारकता ची तुलना करा →
- मोलर उष्माधारकता
- 26.84 J/(mol·K) सर्व घटकांच्या मोलर उष्माधारकता ची तुलना करा →
- स्फटिक संरचना
- पृष्ठकेंद्रित घनीय सर्व घटकांच्या स्फटिक संरचना ची तुलना करा →
रासायनिक
- विद्युतऋणता (पॉलिंग)
- 2.33 सर्व घटकांच्या विद्युतऋणता (पॉलिंग) ची तुलना करा →
- विद्युतऋणता (ॲलन)
- 1.854
- इलेक्ट्रॉन आसक्ती
- 0.364 eV
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पहिली)
- 7.41668 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पहिली) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (दुसरी)
- 15.032551 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (दुसरी) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (तिसरी)
- 31.93741 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (तिसरी) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (चौथी)
- 42.332706 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (चौथी) ची तुलना करा →
- आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पाचवी)
- 68.800237 eV सर्व घटकांच्या आयनीकरण ऊर्जा (पाचवी) ची तुलना करा →
- ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्था
- −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 सर्व घटकांच्या ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्था ची तुलना करा →
- संयुजा इलेक्ट्रॉन
- 4 सर्व घटकांच्या संयुजा इलेक्ट्रॉन ची तुलना करा →
- इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
उष्मागतिक
- द्रवण उष्मा
- 0.04943774 eV सर्व घटकांच्या द्रवण उष्मा ची तुलना करा →
- बाष्पीभवन उष्मा
- 1.860393 eV सर्व घटकांच्या बाष्पीभवन उष्मा ची तुलना करा →
- संप्लवन उष्मा
- 2.023112 eV
- अणूकरण उष्मा
- 2.023112 eV
- अणूकरण एन्थाल्पी
- 2.023112 eV
केंद्रकीय
- प्रोटॉन
- 82 सर्व घटकांच्या प्रोटॉन ची तुलना करा →
- न्यूट्रॉन
- 126 सर्व घटकांच्या न्यूट्रॉन ची तुलना करा →
- ज्ञात समस्थानिके
- 43 सर्व घटकांच्या ज्ञात समस्थानिके ची तुलना करा →
- स्थिर समस्थानिके
- 0 सर्व घटकांच्या स्थिर समस्थानिके ची तुलना करा →
- सर्वाधिक स्थिर समस्थानिक
- Pb-208
- शोधाचे वर्ष
- 2021
विपुलता
- विपुलता (पृथ्वीचे कवच)
- 14 mg/kg सर्व घटकांच्या विपुलता (पृथ्वीचे कवच) ची तुलना करा →
- विपुलता (महासागर)
- 3 × 10−5 mg/L सर्व घटकांच्या विपुलता (महासागर) ची तुलना करा →
स्फटिक संरचना
- जालक स्थिरांक a
- 495 pm
इलेक्ट्रॉन संरचना
- प्रत्येक कवचातील इलेक्ट्रॉन
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 सर्व घटकांच्या प्रत्येक कवचातील इलेक्ट्रॉन ची तुलना करा →
ओळखचिन्हे
- CAS क्रमांक
- 7439-92-1 सर्व घटकांच्या CAS क्रमांक ची तुलना करा →
- टर्म चिन्ह
- (1/2,1/2)0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Pb
- InChI की
- WABPQHHGFIMREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण मोजलेले
Pb: 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6s² 6p²अणुप्रतिमान
समस्थानिकांमुळे न्यूट्रॉन संख्या, वस्तुमान आणि स्थैर्य बदलते — विद्युतदृष्ट्या उदासीन अणूचे इलेक्ट्रॉन संरूपण बदलत नाही.
योजनात्मक अणुप्रतिमान, प्रमाणानुसार नाही.
अणूची विशिष्ट ओळख
उत्सर्जन / शोषण वर्णपट
समस्थानिक वितरण
स्थिर समस्थानिके नाहीत.
| वस्तुमानांक | अणुवस्तुमान (u) | नैसर्गिक विपुलता | अर्धायुष्य |
|---|---|---|---|
| 183 किरणोत्सारी | १८२.९९१८७२ ± ०.००००३ | उपलब्ध नाही | 535 ms |
| 184 किरणोत्सारी | १८३.९८८१३६ ± ०.००००१४ | उपलब्ध नाही | 490 ms |
| 178 किरणोत्सारी | १७८.००३८३१ ± ०.००००२६ | उपलब्ध नाही | 250 us |
| 215 किरणोत्सारी | २१५.००४७४ ± ०.०००११ | उपलब्ध नाही | 142 सेकंद |
| 204 किरणोत्सारी | २०३.९७३०४४ ± ०.०००००१३ | 1.4000% | 140 Py |
अवस्था / स्थिती
कारण: द्रवणांकापेक्षा (327.46 °C) 302.5 °C कमी
योजनात्मक, प्रमाणानुसार नाही
अवस्थांतर बिंदू
अवस्थांतर ऊर्जा
द्रवणांकावर 1 mol वितळवण्यासाठी आवश्यक ऊर्जा
उत्कलनांकावर 1 mol चे बाष्पीभवन करण्यासाठी आवश्यक ऊर्जा
संप्लवनांकावर 1 mol चे संप्लवन करण्यासाठी आवश्यक ऊर्जा
घनता
प्रमाणित परिस्थितीत
प्रमाणित परिस्थितीत
अणुवर्णपट
82 पैकी 10 दाखवले आहेत. आयनाच्या विद्युतभारानुसार चढत्या क्रमाने मांडलेले.
वर्णरेषांचा संग्रह ?
| आयन | विद्युतभार | एकूण वर्णरेषा | संक्रमण संभाव्यता | पातळ्यांची नामांकने |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pb I | 0 | 135 | 28 | 135 |
| Pb II | +1 | 97 | 3 | 12 |
| Pb III | +2 | 41 | 0 | 0 |
| Pb IV | +3 | 92 | 0 | 0 |
| Pb V | +4 | 90 | 0 | 0 |
ऊर्जा पातळ्यांचा संग्रह ?
| आयन | विद्युतभार | पातळ्या |
|---|---|---|
| Pb I | 0 | 136 |
| Pb II | +1 | 95 |
| Pb III | +2 | 124 |
| Pb IV | +3 | 108 |
| Pb V | +4 | 45 |
| Pb VI | +5 | 2 |
| Pb VII | +6 | 2 |
| Pb VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Pb IX | +8 | 2 |
| Pb X | +9 | 2 |
आयनिक त्रिज्या
12 पैकी 10 दाखवले आहेत.
| विद्युतभार | समन्वय | प्रचक्रण | त्रिज्या |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 4 | उपलब्ध नाही | 98 pm |
| +2 | 6 | उपलब्ध नाही | 119 pm |
| +2 | 7 | उपलब्ध नाही | 123 pm |
| +2 | 8 | उपलब्ध नाही | 129 pm |
| +2 | 9 | उपलब्ध नाही | 135 pm |
| +2 | 10 | उपलब्ध नाही | 140 pm |
| +2 | 11 | उपलब्ध नाही | 145 pm |
| +2 | 12 | उपलब्ध नाही | 149 pm |
| +4 | 4 | उपलब्ध नाही | 65 pm |
| +4 | 5 | उपलब्ध नाही | 73 pm |
संयुगे
समस्थानिके (5)
| वस्तुमानांक | अणुवस्तुमान (u) | नैसर्गिक विपुलता | अर्धायुष्य | क्षय प्रकार | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 183 किरणोत्सारी | १८२.९९१८७२ ± ०.००००३ | उपलब्ध नाही | 535 ms | α ≈100%β+ ? | |
| 184 किरणोत्सारी | १८३.९८८१३६ ± ०.००००१४ | उपलब्ध नाही | 490 ms | α =80±1.1%β+ ? | |
| 178 किरणोत्सारी | १७८.००३८३१ ± ०.००००२६ | उपलब्ध नाही | 250 us | α ≈100%β+ ? | |
| 215 किरणोत्सारी | २१५.००४७४ ± ०.०००११ | उपलब्ध नाही | 142 सेकंद | β- =100% | |
| 204 किरणोत्सारी | २०३.९७३०४४ ± ०.०००००१३ | 1.4000% ± 0.1000% | 140 Py | IS =1.4±0.6%α ? |
वर्णरेषा
| तरंगलांबी (nm) | तीव्रता | आयनीकरण टप्पा | प्रकार | संक्रमण | अचूकता | स्रोत | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 401.96322 nm | 15000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 405.780659 nm | 95000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 406.213593 nm | 14000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[3/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 415.78144 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.9s (1/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 416.80327 nm | 10000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).6d 2[5/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 434.041263 nm | 200 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).7d 2[3/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 500.54165 nm | 1000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (3/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 500.65724 nm | 100 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 507.6322 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 508.94835 nm | 50 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 509.00083 nm | 20 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 510.72427 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.9p (1/2,1/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 520.14372 nm | 2000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 569.23465 nm | 40 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).5f 2[5/2] | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 589.56245 nm | 200 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 600.18624 nm | 2000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 601.16667 nm | 500 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 605.93556 nm | 500 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 611.05203 nm | 50 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 623.52656 nm | 100 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* → 6s2.6p.8p (1/2,1/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 689.2117 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).10d 2[5/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 712.893 nm | 5 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.11s (1/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 722.89658 nm | 20000 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) → 6s2.6p.7s (1/2,1/2)* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 730.46753 nm | 5 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).9d 2[3/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 733.0146 nm | 8 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p2 (3/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p2 (3/2,3/2) | मोजलेले | NIST | |
| 734.6676 nm | 10 | Pb I | emission | 6s2.6p.7p (1/2,1/2) → 6s2.6p.(2P*<1/2>).9d 2[5/2]* | मोजलेले | NIST |
विस्तारित गुणधर्म
सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (विस्तारित)
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (प्युक्को)
- 144 pm
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (प्युक्को, दुहेरी बंध)
- 135 pm
- सहसंयुजी त्रिज्या (प्युक्को, तिहेरी बंध)
- 137 pm
व्हॅन डर वाल्स त्रिज्या
- Bondi
- 202 pm
- Batsanov
- 230 pm
- Alvarez
- 260 pm
- UFF
- 429.7 pm
- MM3
- 274 pm
अणुत्रिज्या आणि धात्विक त्रिज्या
- अणुत्रिज्या (राह्म)
- 249 pm
- धात्विक त्रिज्या (C12)
- 170 pm
क्रमांकन मापनपट्ट्या
- Mendeleev
- 91
- Pettifor
- 82
- Glawe
- 82
विद्युतऋणता मापनपट्ट्या
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 4
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 4
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
ध्रुवणक्षमता आणि अपस्करण
- द्विध्रुव ध्रुवणक्षमता
- 47 a.u.
- द्विध्रुव ध्रुवणक्षमता (अनिश्चितता)
- 3 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 534 Ha·Bohr6
मिडेमा प्राचल
- मिडेमा मोलर आयतन
- 18.28 cm3/mol
- मिडेमा इलेक्ट्रॉन घनता
- 2
पुरवठा जोखीम आणि अर्थकारण
- उत्पादनाचे केंद्रीकरण
- 44
- सापेक्ष पुरवठा जोखीम
- 6
- साठ्यांचे वितरण
- 34
- राजकीय स्थैर्य (प्रमुख उत्पादक)
- 24
- राजकीय स्थैर्य (सर्वाधिक साठे असलेला देश)
- 75
अवस्थांतरे आणि अपरूपे
| द्रवणांक | 600.61 K |
| उत्कलनांक | 2022.15 K |
ऑक्सिडीकरण अवस्थांचे वर्ग
प्रगत संदर्भ माहिती
परिरक्षण स्थिरांक (15)
| n | कक्षिका | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.5805 |
| 2 | p | 4.5234 |
| 2 | s | 21.57 |
| 3 | d | 13.4533 |
| 3 | p | 22.8505 |
| 3 | s | 23.8477 |
| 4 | d | 37.6804 |
| 4 | f | 38.0312 |
| 4 | p | 35.9664 |
| 4 | s | 35.1072 |
स्फटिक त्रिज्यांचा तपशील (12)
| विद्युतभार | CN | प्रचक्रण | rcrystal (pm) | उत्पत्ती |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | IVPY | 112 | calculated, | |
| 2 | VI | 133 | ||
| 2 | VII | 137 | calculated, | |
| 2 | VIII | 143 | calculated, | |
| 2 | IX | 149 | calculated, | |
| 2 | X | 154 | calculated, | |
| 2 | XI | 159 | calculated, | |
| 2 | XII | 163 | ||
| 4 | IV | 79 | estimated, | |
| 4 | V | 87 | estimated, |
समस्थानिक क्षय प्रकार (59)
| समस्थानिक | मोड | तीव्रता |
|---|---|---|
| 178 | A | 100% |
| 178 | B+ | — |
| 179 | A | 100% |
| 180 | A | 100% |
| 181 | A | 100% |
| 181 | B+ | — |
| 182 | A | 100% |
| 182 | B+ | — |
| 183 | A | 100% |
| 183 | B+ | — |
क्ष-किरण प्रकीर्णन गुणक (516)
| ऊर्जा (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 4.6699 |
| 10.1617 | — | 4.72735 |
| 10.3261 | — | 4.78551 |
| 10.4931 | — | 4.84439 |
| 10.6628 | — | 4.83957 |
| 10.8353 | — | 4.83203 |
| 11.0106 | — | 4.82451 |
| 11.1886 | — | 4.817 |
| 11.3696 | — | 4.7889 |
| 11.5535 | — | 4.7596 |
अतिरिक्त माहिती
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.4×101 milligrams per kilogram
संदर्भ (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
3×10-5 milligrams per liter
संदर्भ (1)
Sources
Sources of this element.
Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite, cerussite, and minim are other common lead minerals.
संदर्भ (1)
- [6] Lead https://periodic.lanl.gov/82.shtml
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
Different geographic regions may have characteristic terrestrial lead isotopic compositions because of variations in the ages and chemical composition of the rocks and minerals in the local environment. Therefore, lead produced at a particular location can have a unique lead isotopic composition and it is possible to trace the history and origins of pollutants by measuring the relative amounts of the four stable isotopes of lead (208Pb, 207Pb, 206Pb, and 204Pb) (Fig. IUPAC.82.2) [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).. Using isotopic abundance data, the source of this toxic metal can be identified as it moves through air and water and eventually to living systems [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).. Scientists have analyzed lead in air pollution in California and found that it originated from Asia. Airborne particles from China have relatively higher amounts of 208Pb, which distinguishes the lead isotopic signature between airborne particles from Asia and North America. This knowledge could have implications in understanding the mixing of particles in the atmosphere and how pollutants are transported over vast distances [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010)., [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.. Mapping the distribution of lead pollution by studying 204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb also allows the identification of those human activities that contribute the highest amounts of lead to the environment [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000)., [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002)., [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008)..
The measurement of the isotopic composition of lead in blood can help to determine the source of this toxic element in the body [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).. Lead is stored in bones and teeth. If a person moves to a different geographical region, the isotopic composition of the lead in the teeth is maintained, recording their place of origin. Bone can store lead for long periods of time (about 20 years), and some skeletal lead may be older and have a different isotopic composition than other skeletal lead. These differences reflect exposure to lead of different origins. By studying the isotope-amount ratio n(206Pb)/n(204Pb) and n(207Pb)/n(206Pb) in bone and teeth, it is possible to determine someone’s place of origin. For example, isotopes of lead were analyzed in the teeth and bones of a human mummy, known as the “Iceman”, to help determine his place of origin [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997)., [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003)..
210Pb is a relatively short-lived radioactive isotope of lead that is constantly produced by the decay of 222Rn in the atmosphere. While living, humans naturally incorporate 210Pb from the environment into bones and tissues. The amount of 210Pb in the body reaches equilibrium such that the 210Pb ingested is in equilibrium with the 210Pb that decays. When a person dies, this incorporation of 210Pb ceases and the relative amount of this isotope in the body decreases. Therefore, measurement of the 210Pb activity in a corpse can help determine time of death [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996)., [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online..
Lead isotope-amount ratios n(206Pb)/n(204Pb), n(207Pb)/n(204Pb), and n(208Pb)/n(204Pb)) along with isotope-amount ratio of silver, n(107Ag)/n(109Ag), and isotope-amount ratio of copper n(65Cu)/n(63Cu) have been used to determine the origin of European coins and to investigate the flow of goods in the world market over time [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).. Metals from Peru and Mexico and those from European mining have distinct isotopic signatures that enable the origin of the metal to be determined by examining the isotopic compositions of silver, copper, and lead in the coins. Abundant silver sources mined in Mexico and Peru in the 16 th century were used to mint coins, but were not a major influence in the European coin market until the 18 th century [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011)..
संदर्भ (13)
- [237] A. M. Desaulty, P. Telouk, E. Albalat, F. Albarede. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.108, 9002 (2011).
- [547] I. Renberg, M. L. Brännvall, R. Bindler, O. Emteryd. Ambio29, 150 (2000).
- [548] T. J. Chow, J. L. Earl. Science169, 577 (1970).
- [549] M. K. Reuer, D. J. Weiss. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.360, 2889 (2002).
- [550] S. A. Ewing, J. N. Christensen, S. T. Brown, R. A. Vancuren, S. S. Cliff, D. J. Depaolo. Environ. Sci. Technol.44, 8911 (2010).
- [551] D. Krotz. Lead Isotopes Yield Clues to How Asian Air Pollution Reaches California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory News Center (2014), Feb. 25; http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/12/01/lead-isotopes-air-pollution/.
- [552] D. Cicchella, B. De Vivo, A. Lima, S. Albanese, R. A. R. McGill, R. R. Parrish. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal.8, 103 (2008).
- [553] R. H. Gwiazda, D. R. Smith. Environ. Health Perspect.108, 1091 (2000).
- [554] B. L. Gulson, B. R. Gillings. Environ. Health Perspect.105, 820 (1997).
- [555] W. Müller, H. Fricke, A. N. Halliday, M. T. McCulloch, J. A. Wartho. Science302, 862 (2003).
- [556] D. R. Smith, J. D. Osterloh, A. R. Flegal. Environ. Health Perspect.104, 60 (1996).
- [557] P. Rincon. “Isotopes could improve forensics”, in BBC News Online.
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
संदर्भ
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Lead.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.