Thulium (Tm)
lanthanideSolid
표준 원자량
168.93422 u전자 배치
[Xe] 6s2 4f13녹는점
1544.85 °C끓는점
1949.85 °C밀도
9320 kg/m³산화 상태
0, +1, +2, +3전기 음성도(Pauling)
1.25제1 이온화 에너지
6.184402 eV발견 연도
1879원자 반지름
175 pm상세 정보
Thulium is a lanthanide rare-earth metal and the least abundant stable lanthanide in Earth’s crust. It is chemically typical of the series, forming mainly Tm³⁺ compounds with a high affinity for oxygen and halogens. The element is not scarce enough to be unattainable, but it is dispersed and difficult to separate from neighboring lanthanides. Its technological importance is concentrated in isotope sources, specialty lasers, and optical materials rather than bulk structural use.
Thulium can be isolated by reduction of the oxide with lanthanum metal or by calcium reduction of a closed container. The element is silver-gray, soft, malleable, and ductile, and can be cut with a knife. Twenty five isotopes are known, with atomic masses ranging from 152 to 176. Natural thulium, which is 100% 169Tm, is stable.
The name derives from Thule, the earliest name for the northernmost part of the civilized world—Scandinavia. It was discovered in 1879 by the Swedish chemist Per Theodor Cleve in a sample of erbium mineral. Thulium was first isolated by the American chemist Charles James in 1911.
Thulium was discovered by Per Theodor Cleve, a Swedish chemist, in 1879. Cleve used the same method Carl Gustaf Mosander used to discover lanthanum, erbium and terbium, he looked for impurities in the oxides of other rare earth elements. He started with erbia, the oxide of erbium (Er2O3), and removed all of the known contaminants. After further processing, he obtained two new materials, one brown and the other green. Cleve named the brown material holmia and the green material thulia. Holmia is the oxide of the element holmium and thulia is the oxide of the element thulium. Today, thulium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements that can contain as much as 0.007% thulium.
Named after Thule, the earliest name for Scandinavia. Discovered in 1879 by Cleve. Thulium occurs in small quantities along with other rare earths in a number of minerals. It is obtained commercially from monazite, which contains about 0.007% of the element. Thulium is the least abundant of the rare earth elements, but with new sources recently discovered, it is now considered to be about as rare as silver,gold, or cadmium.
Pure thulium is a soft, malleable, silvery metal. It slowly tarnishes in air as oxide forms on the surface and reacts more readily when heated. Like many lanthanides, it can be cut with a knife and is normally stored to limit oxidation.
Thulium has specialized uses where its nuclear or optical properties are useful. Neutron-activated ¹⁷⁰Tm produces ¹⁷⁰Tm, a portable gamma and X-ray source formerly used in industrial radiography and still of technical interest where compact sealed sources are suitable. Thulium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet, commonly written Y₃Al₅O₁₂:Tm, and other host crystals are used in solid-state lasers near the two-micrometre infrared region. Thulium-doped silica fibers are also used in fiber lasers and amplifiers. Small amounts may be used in research alloys and magnetic studies, but there is no large-volume elemental application.
Thulium is the least abundant of the naturally occurring rare earth elements. Metallic thulium is relatively expensive and has only recently become available. It currently has no commercial applications, although one of its isotopes, thulium-169, could be used as a radiation source for portable X-ray machines.
Thulium forms no commercially important compounds. Some of thulium's compounds include: thulium oxide (Tm2O3), thulium fluoride (TmF3) and thulium iodide (TmI3).
Because of the relatively high price of the metal, thulium has not yet found many practical applications. 169Tm bombarded in a nuclear reactor can be used as a radiation source in portable X-ray equipment. 171Tm is potentially useful as an energy source. Natural thulium also has possible use in ferrites (ceramic magnetic materials) used in microwave equipment, and can be used for doping fiber lasers. As with other lanthanides, thulium has a low-to-moderate acute toxic rating. It should be handled with care.
Isotopes in Industry
170Tm (with a half-life of about 130 days) is used in the petrochemical industry for industrial radiography to test welds in pipes and tanks [486] Industrial Applications of Sealed Radiation Sources and Alternative Non Nuclear Technologies, Final Report, 68-D-00-210, p. 37. Trinity Engineering Associates Ohio (2002)..
Isotopes in Medicine
167Tm (with a half-life of 9.2 days) is useful for tumor and bone studies [487] F. Tárkányi, A. Hermanne, S. Takács, B. Király, I. Spahn, A. V. Ignatyuk. Appl. Radiat. Isot.68, 250 (2010).. Stable 169Tm can be bombarded in a nuclear reactor to create 170Tm, via the 169Tm (n, γ) 170Tm reaction, which emits X-rays and has been used in portable X-ray equipment as a radiation source [488] D. Granero, J. Pérez-Calatayud, F. Ballester, A. J. Bos, J. Venselaar. Radiat. Prot. Dosimetry118, 11 (2006).. 170Tm has been used in high-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy [489] F. Ballester, D. Granero, J. Perez-Calatayud, J. L. Venselaar, M. J. Rivard. Med. Phys.37, 1629 (2010). and for use in radiosynovectomy of medium sized joints (Fig. IUPAC.69.1) [490] A. Polyak, T. Das, S. Chakraborty, R. Kiraly, G. Dabasi, R. P. Joba, C. Jakab, J. Thuroczy, Z. Postenyi, V. Haasz, G. Janoki, G. A. Janoki, M. R. A. Pillai, L. Balogh. Cancer Biother. Radiopharm.29, 330 (2014)..
Thulium chemistry is dominated by the +3 oxidation state. Thulium(III) oxide, Tm₂O₃, is the common oxide and is a useful starting material for preparing other salts and optical ceramics. Thulium(III) chloride, TmCl₃, and thulium(III) fluoride, TmF₃, are representative halides; the fluoride is sparingly soluble and useful in separations and fluoride materials. A +2 state is known in some strongly reducing solid compounds, but it is much less stable than Tm³⁺ in ordinary aqueous chemistry. In solution, Tm³⁺ salts are typically pale green to nearly colorless depending on concentration and ligand field.
See more information at the Thulium compound page.
Metallic thulium has low acute chemical toxicity compared with many heavy metals, but fine powder is a fire hazard and can react with air or moisture. Soluble thulium salts should be handled as toxic laboratory chemicals because rare-earth ions can affect biological processes at elevated exposure. Radioactive ¹⁷⁰Tm presents an external radiation hazard and an internal hazard if contamination occurs; sealed sources require isotope-specific controls.
Thulium occurs naturally only as a minor constituent of rare-earth minerals, especially minerals that contain the heavy lanthanides. Weathering releases it mainly as Tm³⁺, which tends to bind to clays, oxides, phosphates, and organic matter rather than remain highly mobile. It has no known biological role. Environmental concentrations are usually very low, so ecological effects are mainly a concern near rare-earth mining, processing, or disposal sites.
Thulium is obtained as a by-product of rare-earth extraction rather than mined for its own sake. Sources include ion-adsorption clays and minerals such as monazite and xenotime that contain small fractions of heavy rare earths. Separation relies on solvent extraction, ion exchange, and conversion through oxide or salt intermediates, with cost driven more by separation complexity than by absolute crustal scarcity. Demand is small and specialized, so supply is tied to broader rare-earth processing rather than an independent commodity chain. Recycling is limited because applications use small amounts in dispersed devices or sealed sources.
Found with other rare earths in the minerals gadolinite, euxenite, xenotime, and monazite. Monazite is often 50% rare earth by weight and 0.007% thulium.
Thulium is a rare cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and stellar explosions. Its odd atomic number and position among the heavy lanthanides make it much less abundant than lighter rock-forming elements and less abundant than several neighboring rare earths. In planets and meteorites it follows refractory lithophile behavior and partitions with other rare-earth elements rather than forming native metal.
- Thulium is the least abundant lanthanide that has a stable isotope.
- Natural thulium is essentially all ¹⁶⁹Tm.
- ¹⁷⁰Tm can be made by neutron irradiation of ¹⁶⁹Tm.
- Thulium was named after Thule, a classical name associated with the far north.
- Despite its rarity among lanthanides, thulium is more abundant in Earth’s crust than silver.
이미지
특성
물리적 특성
- 원자 반지름(경험값)
- 175 pm 모든 원소의 원자 반지름(경험값) 비교 →
- 공유 결합 반지름
- 190 pm 모든 원소의 공유 결합 반지름 비교 →
- 반데르발스 반지름
- 227 pm 모든 원소의 반데르발스 반지름 비교 →
- 밀도
- 9320 kg/m³ 모든 원소의 밀도 비교 →
- 몰 부피
- 0.0181 L/mol
- STP에서의 상
- 고체 모든 원소의 STP에서의 상 비교 →
- 녹는점
- 1544.85 °C 모든 원소의 녹는점 비교 →
- 끓는점
- 1949.85 °C 모든 원소의 끓는점 비교 →
- 비열
- 0.16 J/(g·K) 모든 원소의 비열 비교 →
- 몰 열용량
- 27.03 J/(mol·K) 모든 원소의 몰 열용량 비교 →
- 결정 구조
- 육방 조밀 충전 모든 원소의 결정 구조 비교 →
화학적 특성
- 전기 음성도(Pauling)
- 1.25 모든 원소의 전기 음성도(Pauling) 비교 →
- 전자 친화도
- 1.029 eV
- 제1 이온화 에너지
- 6.184402 eV 모든 원소의 제1 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제2 이온화 에너지
- 12.065042 eV 모든 원소의 제2 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제3 이온화 에너지
- 23.660081 eV 모든 원소의 제3 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제4 이온화 에너지
- 42.410146 eV 모든 원소의 제4 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 제5 이온화 에너지
- 65.400225 eV 모든 원소의 제5 이온화 에너지 비교 →
- 산화 상태
- 0, +1, +2, +3 모든 원소의 산화 상태 비교 →
- 원자가 전자
- 3 모든 원소의 원자가 전자 비교 →
- 전자 배치
- [Xe] 6s2 4f13
열역학적 특성
- 융해열
- 0.12437166 eV 모든 원소의 융해열 비교 →
- 기화열
- 1.979582 eV 모든 원소의 기화열 비교 →
- 승화열
- 2.404519 eV
- 원자화열
- 2.404519 eV
- 원자화 엔탈피
- 2.406592 eV
핵 특성
- 양성자 수
- 69 모든 원소의 양성자 수 비교 →
- 중성자 수
- 100 모든 원소의 중성자 수 비교 →
- 알려진 동위원소 수
- 39 모든 원소의 알려진 동위원소 수 비교 →
- 안정 동위원소 수
- 1 모든 원소의 안정 동위원소 수 비교 →
- 가장 안정한 동위원소
- Tm-169
- 발견 연도
- 1879
존재비
- 존재비(지각)
- 0.52 mg/kg 모든 원소의 존재비(지각) 비교 →
- 존재비(해양)
- 1.7 × 10−7 mg/L 모든 원소의 존재비(해양) 비교 →
결정 구조
- 격자 상수 a
- 354 pm
전자 구조
- 전자껍질별 전자 수
- 2, 8, 18, 31, 8, 2 모든 원소의 전자껍질별 전자 수 비교 →
식별자
- CAS 등록 번호
- 7440-30-4 모든 원소의 CAS 등록 번호 비교 →
- 항 기호
- 2F°7/2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Tm
- InChI 키
- FRNOGLGSGLTDKL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
전자 배치 측정값
Tm: 4f¹³ 6s²[Xe] 4f¹³ 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹³ 6s²원자 모형
동위원소에 따라 중성자 수, 질량, 안정성은 달라지지만, 중성 원자의 전자 배치는 달라지지 않습니다.
개략적인 원자 모형이며 실제 비율과 다릅니다.
원자 지문
방출 / 흡수 스펙트럼
동위원소 분포
| 질량수 | 원자 질량(u) | 천연 존재비 | 반감기 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 169 안정 | 168.9342179 ± 0.0000022 | 100.0000% | 안정 |
상 / 상태
이유: 녹는점(1544.85 °C)보다 1519.8 °C 낮음
개략도이며 실제 비율과 다름
상전이점
전이 에너지
녹는점에서 1 mol을 녹이는 데 필요한 에너지
끓는점에서 1 mol을 기화시키는 데 필요한 에너지
승화점에서 1 mol을 승화시키는 데 필요한 에너지
밀도
표준 조건에서
표준 조건에서
원자 스펙트럼
전체 69개 중 10개를 표시합니다. 이온 전하순으로 정렬되었습니다(오름차순).
보유 스펙트럼선 데이터 ?
| 이온 | 전하 | 총 스펙트럼선 수 | 전이 확률 | 준위 표기 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tm I | 0 | 538 | 408 | 525 |
| Tm II | +1 | 267 | 13 | 13 |
| Tm III | +2 | 186 | 0 | 0 |
보유 에너지 준위 데이터 ?
| 이온 | 전하 | 준위 |
|---|---|---|
| Tm I | 0 | 631 |
| Tm II | +1 | 367 |
| Tm III | +2 | 128 |
| Tm IV | +3 | 8 |
| Tm V | +4 | 2 |
| Tm VI | +5 | 2 |
| Tm VII | +6 | 2 |
| Tm VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Tm IX | +8 | 2 |
| Tm X | +9 | 2 |
이온 반지름
| 전하 | 배위 | 스핀 | 반지름 |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | 해당 없음 | 103 pm |
| +2 | 7 | 해당 없음 | 109.00000000000001 pm |
| +3 | 6 | 해당 없음 | 88 pm |
| +3 | 8 | 해당 없음 | 99.4 pm |
| +3 | 9 | 해당 없음 | 105.2 pm |
화합물
동위원소 (1)
| 질량수 | 원자 질량(u) | 천연 존재비 | 반감기 | 붕괴 방식 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 169 안정 | 168.9342179 ± 0.0000022 | 100.0000% | 안정 | stable |
확장 특성
공유 결합 반지름(확장)
- 공유 결합 반지름(Pyykkö)
- 164 pm
- 공유 결합 반지름(Pyykkö, 이중 결합)
- 131 pm
반데르발스 반지름
- Alvarez
- 279 pm
- UFF
- 337.4 pm
- MM3
- 267 pm
원자 및 금속 반지름
- 원자 반지름(Rahm)
- 271 pm
번호 척도
- Mendeleev
- 37
- Pettifor
- 22
- Glawe
- 20
전기 음성도 척도
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 3
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 6
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 5
분극률 및 분산
- 쌍극자 분극률
- 144 a.u.
- 쌍극자 분극률(불확도)
- 15 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 2020 Ha·Bohr6
미데마 매개변수
- 미데마 몰 부피
- 18.12 cm3/mol
- 미데마 전자 밀도
- 2
공급 위험 및 경제성
- 생산 집중도
- 97
- 상대적 공급 위험
- 10
- 매장량 분포
- 50
- 정치적 안정성(최대 생산국)
- 24
- 정치적 안정성(최대 매장국)
- 24
상전이 및 동소체
| 녹는점 | 1818.15 K |
| 끓는점 | 2223.15 K |
산화 상태 분류
심화 참고 데이터
차폐 상수 (13)
| n | 오비탈 | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1.3437 |
| 2 | p | 4.3588 |
| 2 | s | 18.0522 |
| 3 | d | 13.6257 |
| 3 | p | 20.5239 |
| 3 | s | 21.0816 |
| 4 | d | 36.056 |
| 4 | f | 40.366 |
| 4 | p | 33.012 |
| 4 | s | 31.8624 |
결정 반지름 상세 정보 (5)
| 전하 | CN | 스핀 | rcrystal (pm) | 기원 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 117 | ||
| 2 | VII | 123 | ||
| 3 | VI | 102 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VIII | 113.4 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | IX | 119.2 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
동위원소 붕괴 방식 (58)
| 동위원소 | 모드 | 세기 |
|---|---|---|
| 144 | p | — |
| 144 | B+ | — |
| 145 | p | 100% |
| 146 | p | 100% |
| 146 | B+ | — |
| 146 | B+p | — |
| 147 | B+ | 85% |
| 147 | p | 15% |
| 148 | B+ | 100% |
| 148 | B+p | — |
X선 산란 인자 (514)
| 에너지 (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0.17918 |
| 10.1617 | — | 0.18356 |
| 10.3261 | — | 0.18805 |
| 10.4931 | — | 0.19265 |
| 10.6628 | — | 0.19737 |
| 10.8353 | — | 0.2022 |
| 11.0106 | — | 0.20714 |
| 11.1886 | — | 0.21221 |
| 11.3696 | — | 0.21741 |
| 11.5535 | — | 0.22273 |
추가 데이터
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
5.2×10-1 milligrams per kilogram
참고 문헌 (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
1.7×10-7 milligrams per liter
참고 문헌 (1)
참고 문헌
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Thulium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.