Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
Peso atomico standard
72,63 uConfigurazione elettronica
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2Punto di fusione
938,25 °CPunto di ebollizione
2832,85 °CDensità
5323,4 kg/m³Stati di ossidazione
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4Elettronegatività (Pauling)
2,01Energia di ionizzazione (1ª)
7,899435 eVAnno della scoperta
1886Raggio atomico
125 pmDettagli
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
Immagini
Proprietà
Fisiche
- Raggio atomico (empirico)
- 125 pm Confronta Raggio atomico (empirico) di tutti gli elementi →
- Raggio covalente
- 120 pm Confronta Raggio covalente di tutti gli elementi →
- Raggio di van der Waals
- 211 pm Confronta Raggio di van der Waals di tutti gli elementi →
- Raggio metallico
- 124 pm Confronta Raggio metallico di tutti gli elementi →
- Densità
- 5323,4 kg/m³ Confronta Densità di tutti gli elementi →
- Volume molare
- 0,0136 L/mol
- Fase in condizioni STP
- Solido Confronta Fase in condizioni STP di tutti gli elementi →
- Punto di fusione
- 938,25 °C Confronta Punto di fusione di tutti gli elementi →
- Punto di ebollizione
- 2832,85 °C Confronta Punto di ebollizione di tutti gli elementi →
- Conducibilità termica
- 60,2 W/(m·K) Confronta Conducibilità termica di tutti gli elementi →
- Capacità termica specifica
- 0,32 J/(g·K) Confronta Capacità termica specifica di tutti gli elementi →
- Capacità termica molare
- 23,222 J/(mol·K) Confronta Capacità termica molare di tutti gli elementi →
- Struttura cristallina
- Cubica tipo diamante Confronta Struttura cristallina di tutti gli elementi →
Chimiche
- Elettronegatività (Pauling)
- 2,01 Confronta Elettronegatività (Pauling) di tutti gli elementi →
- Elettronegatività (Allen)
- 1,994
- Affinità elettronica
- 1,232 eV
- Energia di ionizzazione (1ª)
- 7,899435 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (1ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (2ª)
- 15,934665 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (2ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (3ª)
- 34,057717 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (3ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (4ª)
- 45,715657 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (4ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (5ª)
- 90,500312 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (5ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Stati di ossidazione
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 Confronta Stati di ossidazione di tutti gli elementi →
- Elettroni di valenza
- 4 Confronta Elettroni di valenza di tutti gli elementi →
- Configurazione elettronica
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
Termodinamiche
- Punto critico (temperatura)
- 9529 °C
- Calore di fusione
- 0,38285744 eV Confronta Calore di fusione di tutti gli elementi →
- Calore di vaporizzazione
- 3,420221 eV Confronta Calore di vaporizzazione di tutti gli elementi →
- Calore di sublimazione
- 3,907343 eV
- Calore di atomizzazione
- 3,907343 eV
- Entalpia di atomizzazione
- 3,855522 eV
Nucleari
- Protoni
- 32 Confronta Protoni di tutti gli elementi →
- Neutroni
- 42 Confronta Neutroni di tutti gli elementi →
- Isotopi noti
- 33 Confronta Isotopi noti di tutti gli elementi →
- Isotopi stabili
- 4 Confronta Isotopi stabili di tutti gli elementi →
- Isotopo più stabile
- Ge-74
- Anno della scoperta
- 1886
Abbondanza
- Abbondanza (crosta terrestre)
- 1,5 mg/kg Confronta Abbondanza (crosta terrestre) di tutti gli elementi →
- Abbondanza (oceano)
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L Confronta Abbondanza (oceano) di tutti gli elementi →
Struttura cristallina
- Costante reticolare a
- 566 pm
Struttura elettronica
- Elettroni per guscio
- 2, 8, 18, 4 Confronta Elettroni per guscio di tutti gli elementi →
Identificativi
- Numero CAS
- 7440-56-4 Confronta Numero CAS di tutti gli elementi →
- Simbolo di termine
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- Chiave InChI
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Configurazione elettronica Misurato
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²Modello atomico
Gli isotopi modificano il numero di neutroni, la massa e la stabilità — non la configurazione elettronica di un atomo neutro.
Modello atomico schematico, non in scala.
Impronta atomica
Spettro di emissione / assorbimento
Distribuzione isotopica
| Numero di massa | Massa atomica (u) | Abbondanza naturale | Emivita |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 Stabile | 69,92424875 ± 0,0000009 | 20,5700% | Stabile |
| 72 Stabile | 71,922075826 ± 0,000000081 | 27,4500% | Stabile |
| 73 Stabile | 72,923458956 ± 0,000000061 | 7,7500% | Stabile |
| 74 Stabile | 73,921177761 ± 0,000000013 | 36,5000% | Stabile |
Fase / Stato
Motivo: 913,3 °C sotto il punto di fusione (938,25 °C)
Schema non in scala
Punti di transizione di fase
Energie di transizione
Energia necessaria per fondere 1 mol al punto di fusione
Energia necessaria per vaporizzare 1 mol al punto di ebollizione
Energia necessaria per sublimare 1 mol al punto di sublimazione
Densità
In condizioni standard
In condizioni standard
Avanzate
Spettri atomici
Sono visualizzati 10 di 32. Ordinamento per carica ionica crescente.
Righe disponibili ?
| Ione | Carica | Righe totali | Probabilità di transizione | Designazioni dei livelli |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
Livelli disponibili ?
| Ione | Carica | Livelli |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
Raggi ionici
| Carica | Coordinazione | Spin | Raggio |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | N/D | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | N/D | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | N/D | 53 pm |
Composti
Isotopi (4)
| Numero di massa | Massa atomica (u) | Abbondanza naturale | Emivita | Modalità di decadimento | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 Stabile | 69,92424875 ± 0,0000009 | 20,5700% ± 0,2700% | Stabile | stable | |
| 72 Stabile | 71,922075826 ± 0,000000081 | 27,4500% ± 0,3200% | Stabile | stable | |
| 73 Stabile | 72,923458956 ± 0,000000061 | 7,7500% ± 0,1200% | Stabile | stable | |
| 74 Stabile | 73,921177761 ± 0,000000013 | 36,5000% ± 0,2000% | Stabile | stable |
Righe spettrali
Sono visualizzati 50 di 57. Per impostazione predefinita sono mostrate soltanto le righe spettrali con intensità misurata.
| Lunghezza d'onda (nm) | Intensità | Stadio di ionizzazione | Tipo | Transizione | Accuratezza | Fonte | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | Misurata | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | Misurata | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | Misurata | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | Misurata | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | Misurata | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Misurata | NIST |
Proprietà estese
Raggi covalenti (dati estesi)
- Raggio covalente (Pyykkö)
- 121 pm
- Raggio covalente (Pyykkö, legame doppio)
- 111 pm
- Raggio covalente (Pyykkö, legame triplo)
- 114 pm
Raggi di van der Waals
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
Raggi atomici e metallici
- Raggio atomico (Rahm)
- 234 pm
- Raggio metallico (C12)
- 144 pm
Scale di numerazione
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
Scale di elettronegatività
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
Polarizzabilità e dispersione
- Polarizzabilità dipolare
- 40 a.u.
- Polarizzabilità dipolare (inc.)
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
Parametri di Miedema
- Volume molare di Miedema
- 9,87 cm3/mol
- Densità elettronica di Miedema
- 3
Rischio di approvvigionamento ed economia
- Concentrazione della produzione
- 67
- Rischio relativo di approvvigionamento
- 8
- Stabilità politica (principale produttore)
- 24
Transizioni di fase e allotropi
| Punto di fusione | 1211,4 K |
| Punto di ebollizione | 3106,15 K |
| Punto critico (temperatura) | 9802,15 K |
Categorie degli stati di ossidazione
Dati di riferimento avanzati
Costanti di schermaggio (8)
| n | Orbitale | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0,7063 |
| 2 | p | 3,9178 |
| 2 | s | 8,6352 |
| 3 | d | 15,7487 |
| 3 | p | 14,9864 |
| 3 | s | 14,2103 |
| 4 | p | 25,2196 |
| 4 | s | 23,9564 |
Dettaglio dei raggi cristallini (3)
| Carica | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Origine |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
Modalità di decadimento degli isotopi (50)
| Isotopo | Modalità | Intensità |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0,2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
Fattori di diffusione dei raggi X (506)
| Energia (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3,01183 |
| 10,1617 | — | 3,05548 |
| 10,3261 | — | 3,09976 |
| 10,4931 | — | 3,14468 |
| 10,6628 | — | 3,19025 |
| 10,8353 | — | 3,21825 |
| 11,0106 | — | 3,20755 |
| 11,1886 | — | 3,19689 |
| 11,3696 | — | 3,18626 |
| 11,5535 | — | 3,17568 |
Dati aggiuntivi
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
Riferimenti (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
Riferimenti (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Riferimenti (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
Riferimenti
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.