Sulfur (S)
nonmetalSolid
Peso atomico standard
32,06 u [32,059, 32,076]Configurazione elettronica
[Ne] 3s2 3p4Punto di fusione
115,21 °CPunto di ebollizione
444,6 °CDensità
2067 kg/m³Stati di ossidazione
−2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6Elettronegatività (Pauling)
2,58Energia di ionizzazione (1ª)
10,360017 eVAnno della scoperta
1777Raggio atomico
100 pmDettagli
Sulfur is a reactive nonmetal in group 16, occurring naturally as elemental sulfur and in sulfide and sulfate minerals. It forms many allotropes and a large range of compounds, especially with oxygen, hydrogen, metals, and organic groups. Its chemistry is central to fertilizers, petroleum refining, vulcanized rubber, and biological molecules such as amino acids and cofactors.
Sulfur is pale yellow, odorless, brittle solid, which is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. In every state, whether gas, liquid or solid, elemental sulfur occurs in more than one allotropic form or modification; these present a confusing multitude of forms whose relations are not yet fully understood.
In 1975, University of Pennsylvania scientists reported synthesis of polymeric sulfur nitride, which has the properties of a metal, although it contains no metal atoms. The material has unusual optical and electrical properties.
High-purity sulfur is commercially available in purities of 99.999+%.
Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur is obtained by fast cooling of the crystalline form. X-ray studies indicate that amorphous sulfur may have a helical structure with eight atoms per spiral. Crystalline sulfur seems to be made of rings, each containing eight sulfur atoms, which fit together to give a normal X-ray pattern.
The name derives from the Latin sulphurium and the Sanskrit sulveri. Sulfur was known as brenne stone for "combustible stone" from which brim-stone is derived. It was known from prehistoric times and thought to contain hydrogen and oxygen. In 1809, the French chemists Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenard proved the elemental nature of sulfur.
Sulfur, the tenth most abundant element in the universe, has been known since ancient times. Sometime around 1777, Antoine Lavoisier convinced the rest of the scientific community that sulfur was an element. Sulfur is a component of many common minerals, such as galena (PbS), gypsum (CaSO4·2(H2O), pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS or FeS), cinnabar (HgS), stibnite (Sb2S3), epsomite (MgSO4·7(H2O)), celestite (SrSO4) and barite (BaSO4). Nearly 25% of the sulfur produced today is recovered from petroleum refining operations and as a byproduct of extracting other materials from sulfur containing ores. The majority of the sulfur produced today is obtained from underground deposits, usually found in conjunction with salt deposits, with a process known as the Frasch process. Sulfur is a pale yellow, odorless and brittle material. It displays three allotropic forms: orthorhombic, monoclinic and amorphous. The orthorhombic form is the most stable form of sulfur. Monoclinic sulfur exists between the temperatures of 96°C and 119°C and reverts back to the orthorhombic form when cooled. Amorphous sulfur is formed when molten sulfur is quickly cooled. Amorphous sulfur is soft and elastic and eventually reverts back to the orthorhombic form.
Known to the ancients; referred to in Genesis as brimstone.
Pure sulfur is most familiar as a brittle, bright yellow crystalline solid at room temperature, usually composed of S₈ rings. It melts to a mobile yellow liquid that darkens and becomes viscous on further heating as polymeric sulfur chains form.
Most sulfur is converted to sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄, a basic industrial chemical used in phosphate fertilizer manufacture, metal processing, petroleum refining, and many chemical syntheses. Elemental sulfur is used in rubber vulcanization, some fungicides, and specialty chemical production. Sulfur compounds are used in matches, black powder historically, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and battery materials, depending on the compound rather than the element alone.
Most of the sulfur that is produced is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Large amounts of sulfuric acid, nearly 40 million tons, are used each year to make fertilizers, lead-acid batteries, and in many industrial processes. Smaller amounts of sulfur are used to vulcanize natural rubbers, as an insecticide (the Greek poet Homer mentioned "pest-averting sulphur" nearly 2,800 years ago!), in the manufacture of gunpowder and as a dying agent.
In addition to sulfuric acid, sulfur forms other interesting compounds. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas that smells like rotten eggs. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), formed by burning sulfur in air, is used as a bleaching agent, solvent, disinfectant and as a refrigerant. When combined with water (H2O), sulfur dioxide forms sulfurous acid (H2SO3), a weak acid that is a major component of acid rain.
Sulfur is a component of black gunpowder, and is used in the vulcanization of natural rubber and a fungicide. It is also used extensively in making phosphatic fertilizers. A tremendous tonnage is used to produce sulfuric acid, the most important manufactured chemical.
It is used to make sulfite paper and other papers, to fumigate, and to bleach dried fruits. The element is a good insulator.
Sulfur is essential to life. It is a minor constituent of fats, body fluids, and skeletal minerals.
Isotopes in Biology
The stable sulfur isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) has been used to distinguish whether animal tissues grew in freshwater or in marine ecosystems. The isotopes do not fractionate (separate) substantially with trophic influences (the movement of sulfur through and into plant and animal systems), and the isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) is usually substantially different between freshwater and marine environments. As an example, by analyzing sulfur isotope-amount ratios in bird feathers, the environment in which the bird was living when these feathers developed can be determined. This enables one to track bird habitats and migration patterns throughout the year (Fig. IUPAC.16.1) [141] C. E. Hebert, M. Bur, D. Sherman, J. L. Shutt. Ecol. Appl.18, 561 (2008)..
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of sulfur possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, and they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are substantial variations in the isotopic abundances of sulfur in natural terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.16.2). These variations are useful in investigating the origin of substances and studying environmental, hydrological, and geological processes [13] M. W. Wieser, T. B. Coplen. Pure Appl Chem.83, 359 (2011)., [17] T. B. Coplen, J. A. Hopple, J. K. Böhlke, H. S. Peiser, S. E. Rieder, H. R. Krouse, K. J. R. Rosman, T. Ding, R. D. Vocke, K. Revesz, A. Lamberty, P. D. P. Taylor, P. D. Bièvre. United States Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report, 01-4222, (2002).. The isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) can be used to trace natural and anthropogenic sources of sulfur. Examples include studies of acid mine drainage, the cycling of sulfur in agricultural watersheds, groundwater contamination from landfills, and sources of salinity in coastal aquifers [142] International Atomic Energy Agency. Guidelines for the use of Isotopes of Sulfur in Soil–Plant Studies, International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna, Austria (2003)., [143] I. M. Cozzarelli, J. M. Suflita, G. A. Ulrich, S. H. Harris, M. A. Scholl, J. L. Schlottmann, S. Christenson. Environ. Sci. Technol.34, 4025 (2000)., [144] M. Edraki, S. D. Golding, K. A. Baublys, M. G. Lawrence. Appl. Geochem.20, 789 (2005)..
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
The isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) can be used to authenticate the dietary source of cattle. First, stable isotopes are measured to infer the dietary source of the cattle. Once the source of the diet is found, the isotopic compositions can be traced in certain muscle groups of the cattle and can be used to determine if the diet of the animal has been changed or if the feed is consistent with what the animal has been claimed to have been fed [145] B. Bahar, A. P. Moloney, F. J. Monahan, S. M. Harrison, A. Zazzo, C. M. Scrimgeour, I. S. Begley, O. Schmidt. J. Anim. Sci.87, 905 (2009)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
35S has a half-life of 87 days, which is an ideal duration for use as a conservative tracer in atmospheric processes. 35SO2 gas is produced as a natural product of argon exposure to cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Because 35SO2 gas is present in the atmosphere and then precipitates and falls as moisture in the form of 35SO4 2-, 35S can act as a tracer to study air mass transport dynamics and atmospheric oxidation capacity [147] A. Priyadarshi, G. Dominguez, J. Savarino, M. Thiemens. Geophys. Res. Lett.38, L13808 (2011).. Analyses of 35S in lake water and precipitation can also be used as a tracer to monitor contributions of sulfur that originated in precipitation to surface waters. If a water tests positive for the isotope 35S, it provides evidence that the water had been affected by recent (<~1 year) precipitation [148] INSTAAR University of Colorado Boulder. Sulfur 35, INSTAAR University of Colorado Boulder (2014), Feb. 24; http://snobear.colorado.edu/Daniel/isotopes/sulfur35.html., [149] Y. Kim, K. S. Lee, D. C. Koh, D. H. Lee, S. G. Lee, W. B. Park, G. W. Koh, N. C. Woo. J. Hydrol.270, 282 (2003)., [150] Y. L. Hong, G. Kim. Anal. Chem.77, 3390 (2005).. 35S is used in direct labeling of elemental sulfur or sulfate sources to trace the fate of sulfur in fertilizers [142] International Atomic Energy Agency. Guidelines for the use of Isotopes of Sulfur in Soil–Plant Studies, International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna, Austria (2003)..
Sulfur commonly shows oxidation states from −2 to +6. Hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, contains sulfur in the −2 state and is a weak acid and reducing agent. Sulfur dioxide, SO₂, and sulfur trioxide, SO₃, are key oxides leading to sulfurous acid, H₂SO₃, and sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄. Metal sulfides, sulfates, thiosulfates, and organosulfur compounds are widespread. Disulfide bonds, commonly written as R–S–S–R, are important in protein structure.
Organic compounds containing sulfur are very important. Calcium sulfur, ammonium sulfate, carbon disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are but a few of the many important compounds of sulfur.
See more information at the Sulfur compound page.
Elemental sulfur has relatively low acute toxicity, but dust can irritate eyes, skin, and airways and can form combustible dust clouds. Burning sulfur produces sulfur dioxide, SO₂, a choking, toxic gas. Hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, is highly toxic and can be rapidly fatal at high concentrations; odor is not a reliable warning at dangerous levels. Concentrated sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄, is strongly corrosive and dehydrating.
Carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide should be handled carefully. Hydrogen sulfide in small concentrations can be metabolized, but in higher concentrations it quickly can cause death by respiratory paralysis.
Sulfur cycles among rocks, oceans, air, and living organisms through oxidation, reduction, volcanic emissions, sea spray, weathering, and microbial metabolism. Sulfate is a major dissolved ion in seawater and an essential plant nutrient. Reduced sulfur compounds can form in anoxic sediments, while atmospheric sulfur dioxide, SO₂, can oxidize to sulfate aerosols and contribute to acid deposition.
Modern sulfur supply is dominated by recovery from natural gas and petroleum refining, where removal of hydrogen sulfide, H₂S, and other sulfur compounds is required to meet fuel specifications and reduce emissions. This makes much sulfur a by-product rather than a primary mined material. Some native sulfur and sulfide ore sources have historical importance, but recovered sulfur and sulfuric acid production now shape demand. Fertilizer manufacture is the largest use, and sulfuric acid is often produced and consumed close to heavy industrial sites because transport and handling are costly.
Sulfur is found in meteorites. R.W. Wood suggests that the dark area near the crater Aristarchus is a sulfur deposit.
Sulfur occurs native in the vicinity of volcanos and hot springs. It is widely distributed in nature as iron pyrites, galena, sphalerite, cinnabar, stibnite, gypsum, epsom salts, celestite, barite, etc.
Sulfur is a cosmically common element for its mass range, made mainly in massive stars during advanced burning stages and dispersed by supernovae. It is found in meteorites, planetary crusts, volcanic gases, and icy-body chemistry. On Earth and other rocky bodies it partitions into sulfide minerals, sulfate salts, magmas, and atmospheres depending on oxidation conditions.
- Sulfur has many allotropes, but ordinary crystalline sulfur is dominated by crown-shaped S₈ molecules.
- Molten sulfur becomes unusually viscous near 160 °C because S₈ rings open and polymerize.
- The Frasch process once mined native sulfur by melting it underground with superheated water.
- Sulfur vulcanization strengthens natural rubber by forming cross-links between polymer chains.
- Sulfate minerals such as gypsum can preserve information about ancient oxidation conditions.
Immagini
Proprietà
Fisiche
- Raggio atomico (empirico)
- 100 pm Confronta Raggio atomico (empirico) di tutti gli elementi →
- Raggio covalente
- 105 pm Confronta Raggio covalente di tutti gli elementi →
- Raggio di van der Waals
- 180 pm Confronta Raggio di van der Waals di tutti gli elementi →
- Raggio metallico
- 104 pm Confronta Raggio metallico di tutti gli elementi →
- Densità
- 2067 kg/m³ Confronta Densità di tutti gli elementi →
- Volume molare
- 0,0155 L/mol
- Fase in condizioni STP
- Solido Confronta Fase in condizioni STP di tutti gli elementi →
- Punto di fusione
- 115,21 °C Confronta Punto di fusione di tutti gli elementi →
- Punto di ebollizione
- 444,6 °C Confronta Punto di ebollizione di tutti gli elementi →
- Conducibilità termica
- 0,27 W/(m·K) Confronta Conducibilità termica di tutti gli elementi →
- Capacità termica specifica
- 0,708 J/(g·K) Confronta Capacità termica specifica di tutti gli elementi →
- Capacità termica molare
- 22,7 J/(mol·K) Confronta Capacità termica molare di tutti gli elementi →
- Struttura cristallina
- Ortorombica Confronta Struttura cristallina di tutti gli elementi →
Chimiche
- Elettronegatività (Pauling)
- 2,58 Confronta Elettronegatività (Pauling) di tutti gli elementi →
- Elettronegatività (Allen)
- 2,589
- Affinità elettronica
- 2,0771 eV
- Energia di ionizzazione (1ª)
- 10,360017 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (1ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (2ª)
- 23,33796 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (2ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (3ª)
- 34,86012 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (3ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (4ª)
- 47,222163 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (4ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Energia di ionizzazione (5ª)
- 72,59475 eV Confronta Energia di ionizzazione (5ª) di tutti gli elementi →
- Stati di ossidazione
- −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 Confronta Stati di ossidazione di tutti gli elementi →
- Elettroni di valenza
- 6 Confronta Elettroni di valenza di tutti gli elementi →
- Allotropi
- ["monoclinic", "rhombic"]
- Configurazione elettronica
- [Ne] 3s2 3p4
Termodinamiche
- Punto critico (temperatura)
- 1041 °C
- Punto critico (pressione)
- 2,07e+7 Pa
- Calore di fusione
- 0,01793025 eV Confronta Calore di fusione di tutti gli elementi →
- Calore di vaporizzazione
- 0,46639374 eV Confronta Calore di vaporizzazione di tutti gli elementi →
- Calore di sublimazione
- 2,870913 eV
- Calore di atomizzazione
- 2,870913 eV
- Entalpia di atomizzazione
- 2,872675 eV
Nucleari
- Protoni
- 16 Confronta Protoni di tutti gli elementi →
- Neutroni
- 16 Confronta Neutroni di tutti gli elementi →
- Isotopi noti
- 24 Confronta Isotopi noti di tutti gli elementi →
- Isotopi stabili
- 4 Confronta Isotopi stabili di tutti gli elementi →
- Isotopo più stabile
- S-32
- Anno della scoperta
- 1777
Abbondanza
- Abbondanza (crosta terrestre)
- 350 mg/kg Confronta Abbondanza (crosta terrestre) di tutti gli elementi →
- Abbondanza (oceano)
- 905 mg/L Confronta Abbondanza (oceano) di tutti gli elementi →
Struttura cristallina
- Costante reticolare a
- 1047 pm
Struttura elettronica
- Elettroni per guscio
- 2, 8, 6 Confronta Elettroni per guscio di tutti gli elementi →
Identificativi
- Numero CAS
- 7704-34-9 Confronta Numero CAS di tutti gli elementi →
- Simbolo di termine
- 3P2
- InChI
- InChI=1S/S
- Chiave InChI
- NINIDFKCEFEMDL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Configurazione elettronica Misurato
S: 3s² 3p⁴[Ne] 3s² 3p⁴1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁴Modello atomico
Gli isotopi modificano il numero di neutroni, la massa e la stabilità — non la configurazione elettronica di un atomo neutro.
Modello atomico schematico, non in scala.
Impronta atomica
Spettro di emissione / assorbimento
Distribuzione isotopica
| Numero di massa | Massa atomica (u) | Abbondanza naturale | Emivita |
|---|---|---|---|
| 32 Stabile | 31,9720711744 ± 0,0000000014 | 94,9900% | Stabile |
| 33 Stabile | 32,9714589098 ± 0,0000000015 | 0,7500% | Stabile |
| 34 Stabile | 33,967867004 ± 0,000000047 | 4,2500% | Stabile |
| 36 Stabile | 35,96708071 ± 0,0000002 | 0,0100% | Stabile |
Fase / Stato
Motivo: 90,2 °C sotto il punto di fusione (115,21 °C)
Schema non in scala
Punti di transizione di fase
Energie di transizione
Energia necessaria per fondere 1 mol al punto di fusione
Energia necessaria per vaporizzare 1 mol al punto di ebollizione
Energia necessaria per sublimare 1 mol al punto di sublimazione
Densità
In condizioni standard
In condizioni standard
Avanzate
Spettri atomici
Sono visualizzati 10 di 16. Ordinamento per carica ionica crescente.
Righe disponibili ?
| Ione | Carica | Righe totali | Probabilità di transizione | Designazioni dei livelli |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| S I | 0 | 1437 | 1052 | 1429 |
| S II | +1 | 1349 | 753 | 1349 |
| S III | +2 | 329 | 273 | 329 |
| S IV | +3 | 1199 | 999 | 1199 |
| S V | +4 | 866 | 699 | 866 |
| S VI | +5 | 457 | 393 | 457 |
| S VII | +6 | 259 | 253 | 255 |
| S VIII | +7 | 254 | 253 | 254 |
| S IX | +8 | 175 | 175 | 175 |
| S X | +9 | 270 | 268 | 270 |
Livelli disponibili ?
| Ione | Carica | Livelli |
|---|---|---|
| S I | 0 | 382 |
| S II | +1 | 247 |
| S III | +2 | 59 |
| S IV | +3 | 142 |
| S V | +4 | 150 |
| S VI | +5 | 88 |
| S VII | +6 | 57 |
| S VIII | +7 | 54 |
| S IX | +8 | 45 |
| S X | +9 | 44 |
Raggi ionici
| Carica | Coordinazione | Spin | Raggio |
|---|---|---|---|
| -2 | 6 | N/D | 184 pm |
| +4 | 6 | N/D | 37 pm |
| +6 | 4 | N/D | 12 pm |
| +6 | 6 | N/D | 28.999999999999996 pm |
Composti
Isotopi (4)
Eleven isotopes of sulfur exist. None of the four isotopes that are found in nature are radioactive. A finely divided form of sulfur, known as flowers of sulfur, is obtained by sublimation.
| Numero di massa | Massa atomica (u) | Abbondanza naturale | Emivita | Modalità di decadimento | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 32 Stabile | 31,9720711744 ± 0,0000000014 | 94,9900% ± 0,2600% | Stabile | stable | |
| 33 Stabile | 32,9714589098 ± 0,0000000015 | 0,7500% ± 0,0200% | Stabile | stable | |
| 34 Stabile | 33,967867004 ± 0,000000047 | 4,2500% ± 0,2400% | Stabile | stable | |
| 36 Stabile | 35,96708071 ± 0,0000002 | 0,0100% ± 0,0100% | Stabile | stable |
Righe spettrali
Sono visualizzati 50 di 556. Per impostazione predefinita sono mostrate soltanto le righe spettrali con intensità misurata.
| Lunghezza d'onda (nm) | Intensità | Stadio di ionizzazione | Tipo | Transizione | Accuratezza | Fonte | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 545.3853 nm | 42000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 543.2797 nm | 30000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 416.2665 nm | 25000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Misurata | NIST | |
| 532.0715 nm | 24000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 415.3066 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Misurata | NIST | |
| 503.2435 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 542.8658 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 547.3617 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 550.9702 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 560.6158 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 563.998 nm | 20000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 414.5059 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Misurata | NIST | |
| 429.44 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 481.5553 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 534.5715 nm | 16000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 393.326 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 2F | Misurata | NIST | |
| 402.875 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 414.2259 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4F | Misurata | NIST | |
| 417.4266 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4d 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 426.7762 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4D | Misurata | NIST | |
| 452.4942 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 500.9564 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 501.4044 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 521.2614 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 630.5479 nm | 13000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4D → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 556.4958 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 564.0336 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 564.6998 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 565.9998 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 628.6951 nm | 12000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 392.3449 nm | 10000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 2F | Misurata | NIST | |
| 446.358 nm | 10000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).5s 4P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 639.7363 nm | 10000 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4D → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 471.6272 nm | 9900 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 499.1968 nm | 9800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 502.72 nm | 9800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2S* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 520.1025 nm | 9800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4s 2D → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 566.4773 nm | 9700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 631.2666 nm | 7900 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 399.3499 nm | 7800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 403.2767 nm | 7800 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4d 4P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 417.4001 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).4p 2F* → 3s2.3p2.(1D).4d 2G | Misurata | NIST | |
| 446.443 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(1D).3d 2F → 3s2.3p2.(3P<2>).4f 2[5]* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 448.3428 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4D* → 3s2.3p2.(3P).5s 4P | Misurata | NIST | |
| 465.6762 nm | 7700 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4S* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 491.7197 nm | 7600 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 492.5347 nm | 7600 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 510.3332 nm | 7600 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 4P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 581.9238 nm | 7500 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).4s 2P → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 2D* | Misurata | NIST | |
| 639.8015 nm | 7500 | S II | emission | 3s2.3p2.(3P).3d 4D → 3s2.3p2.(3P).4p 4P* | Misurata | NIST |
Proprietà estese
Raggi covalenti (dati estesi)
- Raggio covalente (Pyykkö)
- 103 pm
- Raggio covalente (Pyykkö, legame doppio)
- 94 pm
- Raggio covalente (Pyykkö, legame triplo)
- 95 pm
- Raggio covalente (Bragg)
- 102 pm
Raggi di van der Waals
- Bondi
- 180 pm
- Batsanov
- 180 pm
- Alvarez
- 189 pm
- UFF
- 403,5 pm
- MM3
- 215 pm
- Dreiding
- 403 pm
- Rowland–Taylor
- 181 pm
Raggi atomici e metallici
- Raggio atomico (Rahm)
- 214 pm
- Raggio metallico (C12)
- 127 pm
Scale di numerazione
- Mendeleev
- 100
- Pettifor
- 94
- Glawe
- 96
Scale di elettronegatività
- Ghosh
- 0
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 6
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 5
Polarizzabilità e dispersione
- Polarizzabilità dipolare
- 19,4 a.u.
- Polarizzabilità dipolare (inc.)
- 0,1 a.u.
- C₆
- 134 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 140 Ha·Bohr6
Affinità chimica
- Affinità protonica
- 664,3 kJ/mol
- Basicità in fase gassosa
- 640,2 kJ/mol
Rischio di approvvigionamento ed economia
- Concentrazione della produzione
- 17
- Rischio relativo di approvvigionamento
- 4
- Stabilità politica (principale produttore)
- 24
Transizioni di fase e allotropi
| Temperatura di transizione | 368,35 K |
| Punto di ebollizione | 717,76 K |
| Punto critico (temperatura) | 1314,15 K |
| Punto critico (pressione) | 20,7 MPa |
| Punto di fusione | 388,36 K |
| Punto di ebollizione | 717,76 K |
| Punto critico (temperatura) | 1314,15 K |
Categorie degli stati di ossidazione
Dati di riferimento avanzati
Costanti di schermaggio (5)
| n | Orbitale | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0,4591 |
| 2 | p | 4,023 |
| 2 | s | 5,3712 |
| 3 | p | 10,5181 |
| 3 | s | 9,6331 |
Dettaglio dei raggi cristallini (4)
| Carica | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Origine |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -2 | VI | 170 | Pauling's (1960) crystal radius, | |
| 4 | VI | 51 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 6 | IV | 26 | ||
| 6 | VI | 43 | calculated, |
Modalità di decadimento degli isotopi (38)
| Isotopo | Modalità | Intensità |
|---|---|---|
| 26 | 2p | — |
| 27 | B+ | 100% |
| 27 | B+p | 61% |
| 27 | 2p | 3% |
| 28 | B+ | 100% |
| 28 | B+p | 20,7% |
| 29 | B+ | 100% |
| 29 | B+p | 46,4% |
| 30 | B+ | 100% |
| 31 | B+ | 100% |
Fattori di diffusione dei raggi X (504)
| Energia (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 4,05213 |
| 10,1617 | — | 4,23511 |
| 10,3261 | — | 4,42637 |
| 10,4931 | — | 4,62625 |
| 10,6628 | — | 4,83517 |
| 10,8353 | — | 5,05351 |
| 11,0106 | — | 5,28172 |
| 11,1886 | — | 5,52024 |
| 11,3696 | — | 5,79892 |
| 11,5535 | — | 6,15554 |
Dati aggiuntivi
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
3.50×102 milligrams per kilogram
Riferimenti (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
9.05×102 milligrams per liter
Riferimenti (1)
Sources
Sources of this element.
Sulfur is found in meteorites. R.W. Wood suggests that the dark area near the crater Aristarchus is a sulfur deposit.
Sulfur occurs native in the vicinity of volcanos and hot springs. It is widely distributed in nature as iron pyrites, galena, sphalerite, cinnabar, stibnite, gypsum, epsom salts, celestite, barite, etc.
Riferimenti (1)
- [6] Sulfur https://periodic.lanl.gov/16.shtml
Production
Production of this element (from raw materials or other compounds containing the element).
Sulfur is commercially recovered from wells sunk into the salt domes along the Gulf Coast of the U.S. Using the Frasch process heated water is forced into the wells to melt the sulfur, which is then brought to the surface.
Sulfur also occurs in natural gas and petroleum crudes and must be removed from these products. Formerly this was done chemically, which wasted the sulfur; new processes now permit recovery. Large amounts of sulfur are being recovered from Alberta gas fields.
Riferimenti (1)
- [6] Sulfur https://periodic.lanl.gov/16.shtml
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
The isotope-amount ratio n(34S)/n(32S) can be used to authenticate the dietary source of cattle. First, stable isotopes are measured to infer the dietary source of the cattle. Once the source of the diet is found, the isotopic compositions can be traced in certain muscle groups of the cattle and can be used to determine if the diet of the animal has been changed or if the feed is consistent with what the animal has been claimed to have been fed [145] B. Bahar, A. P. Moloney, F. J. Monahan, S. M. Harrison, A. Zazzo, C. M. Scrimgeour, I. S. Begley, O. Schmidt. J. Anim. Sci.87, 905 (2009)..
Riferimenti (2)
- [145] B. Bahar, A. P. Moloney, F. J. Monahan, S. M. Harrison, A. Zazzo, C. M. Scrimgeour, I. S. Begley, O. Schmidt. J. Anim. Sci.87, 905 (2009).
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
Riferimenti
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Sulfur.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.