Xenon (Xe)
noble-gasGas
Masse atomique relative standard
131,293 uConfiguration électronique
[Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6Point de fusion
-111,79 °CPoint d’ébullition
-108,1 °CMasse volumique
5,887 kg/m³États d’oxydation
0, +2, +4, +6, +8Électronégativité (Pauling)
2,6Énergie d’ionisation (1re)
12,129844 eVAnnée de découverte
1898Rayon atomique
N/DDétails
Xenon is a heavy noble gas with a closed-shell electron configuration and very low chemical reactivity under ordinary conditions. It occurs in the atmosphere only as a trace constituent and is obtained from air-separation processes. Its high atomic mass, ease of ionization, and strong ultraviolet emission make it technologically useful, while its ability to form stable compounds with highly electronegative elements distinguishes it from the lighter noble gases.
Xenon is used in super bright lamps used for deep sea observation.
The name derives from the Greek xenos for "the stranger". It was discovered by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and the English chemist Morris William Travers in 1898 in a liquefied air sample.
Xenon was discovered by Sir William Ramsay, a Scottish chemist, and Morris M. Travers, an English chemist, on July 12, 1898, shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon. Like krypton and neon, xenon was discovered through the study of liquefied air. The earth's atmosphere is about 0.0000087% xenon.
From the Greek word xenon, stranger. Discovered in 1898 by Ramsay and Travers in residue left after evaporating liquid air. Xenon is a member of the so-called noble or "inert" gases. It is present in the atmosphere to the extent of about one part in twenty million. Xenon is present in the Martian atmosphere to the extent of 0.08 ppm. the element is found in the gases evolved from certain mineral springs, and is commercially obtained by extraction from liquid air.
Pure xenon is a colorless, odorless, monatomic gas at ordinary temperature and pressure. When cooled it forms a colorless liquid and a crystalline solid. In an electrical discharge it emits a blue to lavender glow, which is an excitation effect rather than the color of the gas itself.
Xenon is used in high-intensity discharge lamps, photographic flash lamps, stroboscopes, and some specialized projection and automotive lighting systems, although many lighting uses have declined with solid-state alternatives. Xenon is an efficient propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft because it is dense, inert, and readily ionized. It is also used in radiation detectors, excimer and exciplex laser mixtures, plasma displays of historical importance, and as an inhaled anesthetic where cost and equipment allow.
Xenon produces a brilliant white flash of light when it is excited electrically and is widely used in strobe lights. The light emitted from xenon lamps is also used to kill bacteria and to power ruby lasers.
Due to its high atomic weight, xenon ions were used as a fuel in an experimental ion engine aboard the space probe Deep Space 1.
Once thought to be completely inert, xenon will form compounds, usually with fluorine, oxygen and platinum. XePtF6, XeF2, XeF4, XeF6 and XeO4 are some of the xenon compounds that have been formed.
The gas is used in making electron tubes, stoboscopic lamps, bactericidal lamps, and lamps used to excite ruby lasers that generate coherent light. Xenon is used in the nuclear energy field in bubble chambers, probes, and other applications where a high molecular weight is of value. The perxenates are used in analytical chemistry as oxidizing agents. 133Xe and 135Xe are produced by neutron irradiation in air cooled nuclear reactors. 133Xe has useful applications as a radioisotope. The element is available in sealed glass containers of gas at standard pressure. Xenon is not toxic, but its compounds are highly toxic because of their strong oxidizing characteristics.
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Radiogenic xenon isotopes are produced by nuclear reactions in atomic bombs and nuclear reactors. For example, 131Xe, 133Xe, and 135Xe are some of the fission products of 235U and 239Pu, and finding these isotopes would be evidence of a nuclear bomb reaction. Measurements of xenon isotopes (e.g. in the atmosphere or the subsurface) have been used to identify contamination from these sources, for example, to detect faults in nuclear reactors or to monitor compliance with nuclear test bans (Fig. IUPAC.54.1) [396] P. R. J. Saey, C. Schlosser, P. Achim, M. Auer, A. Axelsson, A. Becker, X. Blanchard, G. Brachet, L. Cella, L.-E. De Geer, M. B. Kalinowski, G. Le Petit, J. Peterson, V. Popov, Y. Popov, A. Ringbom, H. Sartorius, T. Taffary, M. Zähringer. Pure Appl. Geophy.167, 499 (2010)..
Isotopes in Geochronology
The stable isotopes of xenon hold many clues about the formation of the elements, solar-system history, and Earth processes [29] M. Ozima, F. A. Podosek. Noble Gas Geochemistry: 2nd Edition, p. 286, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2002)., [101] Noble Gases in Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry: Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, D. Porcelli, C. J. Ballentine, and R. Wieler (Eds.), p. 844, Mineralogical Society of America and the Geochemical Society, Washington, DC (2002).. For example, 129Xe has been used as a detector of “extinct” radionuclides. Some 129Xe is radiogenic as a result of being produced by the radioactive decay of 129I (half-life of 1.7×107 years). Because the half-life of 129I is much smaller than the age of the Earth, primordial 129I (i.e. that which was present at the beginning of Earth’s history) is essentially gone after it decayed to 129Xe over geologic time. This means that radiogenic 129Xe could be a marker of the former existence of the “extinct” isotope 129I. Because primordial 129I was produced largely in supernovae, detection of radiogenic 129Xe in meteorites and terrestrial samples also implies that the time elapsed between 129I supernova nucleosynthesis and planetary condensation was short compared to the subsequent history of the Solar System. The many isotopes and reaction mechanisms of xenon have contributed numerous insights into Earth processes through the study of “xenology” (xenon isotopic variations used as geodynamic tracers to study the dynamics of the Earth) [397] J. H. Reynolds. J. Geophys. Res.68, 2939 (1963)..
Isotopes in Medicine
Xenon isotopes are used in numerous ways to investigate the movement of inhaled gases in lungs and other parts of the body. If radioactive isotopes of xenon [ 127Xe (with a half-life of 0.1 year), 133Xe, and hyperpolarized (having non-equilibrium alignment of nuclear spins, suitable for magnetic resonance) 129Xe] are inhaled, they can be tracked throughout the body by externally monitoring their decay products using magnetic resonance microscopy [high resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at microscopic (nanometer) levels] (Fig. IUPAC.54.2). This imaging technique is used to assess how well oxygen is taken up and transported by the blood [398] B. Driehuys, L. W. Hedlund. Toxicol. Pathol.35, 49 (2007)..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
124Xe is used in the production of radioisotopes 123I and 125I (with half-lives of 0.55 day and 59 days, respectively) via the reactions 124Xe (n, n p) 123I and 124Xe (n, γ) 125I, respectively, which are used in diagnostic procedures and cancer treatment, respectively [398] B. Driehuys, L. W. Hedlund. Toxicol. Pathol.35, 49 (2007)..
Xenon chemistry is dominated by positive oxidation states stabilized by fluorine and oxygen. Xenon difluoride (XeF₂), xenon tetrafluoride (XeF₄), and xenon hexafluoride (XeF₆) are well-established fluorides and strong fluorinating or oxidizing reagents. Oxygen-containing species include xenon trioxide (XeO₃), xenon tetroxide (XeO₄), and perxenate salts containing the XeO₆⁴⁻ ion. Xenon also forms coordination compounds and adducts with very strong Lewis acids, but no ordinary aqueous cation chemistry is known.
See more information at the Xenon compound page.
Xenon is chemically inert and not toxic by ordinary chemical mechanisms, but it can displace oxygen and cause asphyxiation in confined or poorly ventilated spaces. Compressed xenon cylinders present pressure hazards. Liquid xenon is cryogenic and can cause cold burns or material embrittlement. Radioactive xenon isotopes, such as ¹³³Xe, require isotope-specific radiation controls; stable xenon does not share those radiological hazards.
Atmospheric xenon is chemically persistent and present at very low concentration. It is released and recaptured mainly through physical processes rather than chemical cycling. Natural radioactive xenon isotopes are short-lived products of nuclear fission and can serve as tracers of underground nuclear activity or reactor releases. Stable xenon has no known biological role and little direct ecological reactivity.
Commercial xenon is recovered as a minor by-product of large-scale cryogenic air separation, usually from the same rare-gas streams that can also yield krypton. Its supply is constrained by the amount of air processed for oxygen and nitrogen rather than by xenon demand alone. Purification is energy- and capital-intensive because atmospheric concentration is very low. Demand is led by space propulsion, specialized lighting, electronics, detectors, and medical uses. Recycling is practical in some closed systems, especially where high purity gas is valuable.
Obtain from the small quantities in liquid air.
Xenon is produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and by fission of heavy nuclei. It is less abundant cosmically than lighter noble gases but is important in isotope studies. Xenon isotope ratios in meteorites, planetary atmospheres, and lunar samples record nucleosynthetic components, radiogenic additions, and atmospheric loss processes. Its isotopic anomalies are a notable tool in planetary science.
- Xenon was the first noble gas shown to form a stable neutral compound under ordinary laboratory isolation conditions.
- Natural xenon contains nine stable isotopes, an unusually large number for one element.
- Liquid xenon is widely used as a scintillation and ionization medium in rare-event physics detectors.
- The name xenon comes from a Greek word meaning stranger or foreigner.
- Xenon excimer systems can generate intense ultraviolet light without a conventional hot filament.
- Atmospheric xenon is anomalously depleted relative to krypton when compared with some simple planetary models.
Images
Propriétés
Propriétés physiques
- Rayon covalent
- 140 pm Comparer : Rayon covalent de tous les éléments →
- Rayon de van der Waals
- 216 pm Comparer : Rayon de van der Waals de tous les éléments →
- Masse volumique
- 5,887 kg/m³ Comparer : Masse volumique de tous les éléments →
- Volume molaire
- 0,0429 L/mol
- Phase aux CNTP
- Gaz Comparer : Phase aux CNTP de tous les éléments →
- Point de fusion
- -111,79 °C Comparer : Point de fusion de tous les éléments →
- Point d’ébullition
- -108,1 °C Comparer : Point d’ébullition de tous les éléments →
- Conductivité thermique
- 0,006 W/(m·K) Comparer : Conductivité thermique de tous les éléments →
- Capacité thermique massique
- 0,158 J/(g·K) Comparer : Capacité thermique massique de tous les éléments →
- Capacité thermique molaire
- 20,786 J/(mol·K) Comparer : Capacité thermique molaire de tous les éléments →
- Structure cristalline
- Cubique à faces centrées Comparer : Structure cristalline de tous les éléments →
Propriétés chimiques
- Électronégativité (Pauling)
- 2,6 Comparer : Électronégativité (Pauling) de tous les éléments →
- Électronégativité (Allen)
- 2,582
- Affinité électronique
- -0,8 eV (valeur négative — l'atome ne devrait pas lier d'électron supplémentaire)
- Énergie d’ionisation (1re)
- 12,129844 eV Comparer : Énergie d’ionisation (1re) de tous les éléments →
- Énergie d’ionisation (2e)
- 20,975072 eV Comparer : Énergie d’ionisation (2e) de tous les éléments →
- Énergie d’ionisation (3e)
- 31,050107 eV Comparer : Énergie d’ionisation (3e) de tous les éléments →
- Énergie d’ionisation (4e)
- 42,200145 eV Comparer : Énergie d’ionisation (4e) de tous les éléments →
- Énergie d’ionisation (5e)
- 54,100186 eV Comparer : Énergie d’ionisation (5e) de tous les éléments →
- États d’oxydation
- 0, +2, +4, +6, +8 Comparer : États d’oxydation de tous les éléments →
- Électrons de valence
- 8 Comparer : Électrons de valence de tous les éléments →
- Configuration électronique
- [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6
Propriétés thermodynamiques
- Point triple (température)
- -111,75 °C
- Point triple (pression)
- 8,16e+4 Pa
- Point critique (température)
- 16,583 °C
- Point critique (pression)
- 5,842e+6 Pa
- Enthalpie de fusion
- 0,02352697 eV Comparer : Enthalpie de fusion de tous les éléments →
- Enthalpie de vaporisation
- 0,13100482 eV Comparer : Enthalpie de vaporisation de tous les éléments →
- Enthalpie d’atomisation
- 0 eV
Propriétés nucléaires
- Protons
- 54 Comparer : Protons de tous les éléments →
- Neutrons
- 78 Comparer : Neutrons de tous les éléments →
- Isotopes connus
- 43 Comparer : Isotopes connus de tous les éléments →
- Isotopes stables
- 6 Comparer : Isotopes stables de tous les éléments →
- Isotope le plus stable
- Xe-132
- Année de découverte
- 1898
Abondance
- Abondance (croûte terrestre)
- 3e-5 mg/kg Comparer : Abondance (croûte terrestre) de tous les éléments →
- Abondance (océan)
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L Comparer : Abondance (océan) de tous les éléments →
Structure cristalline
- Paramètre de maille a
- 620 pm
Structure électronique
- Électrons par couche
- 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 Comparer : Électrons par couche de tous les éléments →
Identifiants
- Numéro CAS
- 7440-63-3 Comparer : Numéro CAS de tous les éléments →
- Symbole de terme
- 1S0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Xe
- Clé InChI
- FHNFHKCVQCLJFQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Configuration électronique Mesuré
Xe: 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶[Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶Modèle atomique
Les isotopes diffèrent par leur nombre de neutrons, leur masse et leur stabilité — pas par la configuration électronique de l’atome neutre.
Modèle atomique schématique, non à l’échelle.
Empreinte atomique
Spectre d’émission / d’absorption
Distribution isotopique
| Nombre de masse | Masse atomique (u) | Abondance naturelle | Demi-vie |
|---|---|---|---|
| 126 Stable | 125,9042983 ± 0,0000038 | 0,0890% | Stable |
| 128 Stable | 127,903531 ± 0,0000011 | 1,9102% | Stable |
| 129 Stable | 128,9047808611 ± 0,000000006 | 26,4006% | Stable |
| 130 Stable | 129,903509349 ± 0,00000001 | 4,0710% | Stable |
| 131 Stable | 130,90508406 ± 0,00000024 | 21,2324% | Stable |
| 132 Stable | 131,9041550856 ± 0,0000000056 | 26,9086% | Stable |
Phase / État
Explication: 133,1 °C au-dessus du point d’ébullition (-108,1 °C)
Schématique, non à l’échelle
Points de transition de phase
Énergies de transition
Énergie nécessaire pour faire fondre 1 mol au point de fusion
Énergie nécessaire pour vaporiser 1 mol au point d’ébullition
Masse volumique
Dans les conditions standard
Estimée par la loi des gaz parfaits à la température actuelle
Données avancées
Spectres atomiques
Affichage de 10 sur 54. Tri par charge ionique croissante.
Raies répertoriées ?
| Ion | Charge | Nombre total de raies | Probabilités de transition | Désignations des niveaux |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Xe I | 0 | 1143 | 187 | 1143 |
| Xe II | +1 | 1115 | 22 | 1115 |
| Xe III | +2 | 1512 | 0 | 1512 |
| Xe IV | +3 | 769 | 0 | 769 |
| Xe V | +4 | 273 | 0 | 273 |
| Xe VI | +5 | 126 | 0 | 126 |
| Xe VII | +6 | 131 | 0 | 131 |
| Xe VIII | +7 | 135 | 0 | 135 |
| Xe IX | +8 | 144 | 0 | 144 |
| Xe X | +9 | 83 | 0 | 83 |
Niveaux répertoriés ?
| Ion | Charge | Niveaux |
|---|---|---|
| Xe I | 0 | 445 |
| Xe II | +1 | 164 |
| Xe III | +2 | 158 |
| Xe IV | +3 | 95 |
| Xe V | +4 | 55 |
| Xe VI | +5 | 73 |
| Xe VII | +6 | 73 |
| Xe VIII | +7 | 83 |
| Xe IX | +8 | 61 |
| Xe X | +9 | 63 |
Rayons ioniques
| Charge | Coordinence | Spin | Rayon |
|---|---|---|---|
| +8 | 4 | N/D | 40 pm |
| +8 | 6 | N/D | 48 pm |
Composés
Isotopes (6)
Natural xenon is composed of nine stable isotopes. In addition to these, 20 unstable isotopes have been characterized. Before 1962, it had generally been assumed that xenon and other noble gases were unable to form compounds. Evidence has been mounting in the past few years that xenon, as well as other members of zero valance elements, do form compounds. Among the "compounds" of xenon now reported are sodium perxenate, xenon deuterate, xenon hydrate, difluoride, tetrafluoride, and hexafluoride. Xenon trioxide, which is highly explosive, has been prepared. More than 80 xenon compounds have been made with xenon chemically bonded to fluorine and oxygen. Some xenon compounds are colored. Metallic xenon has been produced, using several hundred kilobars of pressure. Xenon in a vacuum tube produces a beautiful blue glow when excited by an electrical discharge.
| Nombre de masse | Masse atomique (u) | Abondance naturelle | Demi-vie | Mode de désintégration | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 126 Stable | 125,9042983 ± 0,0000038 | 0,0890% ± 0,0002% | Stable | stable | |
| 128 Stable | 127,903531 ± 0,0000011 | 1,9102% ± 0,0008% | Stable | stable | |
| 129 Stable | 128,9047808611 ± 0,000000006 | 26,4006% ± 0,0082% | Stable | stable | |
| 130 Stable | 129,903509349 ± 0,00000001 | 4,0710% ± 0,0013% | Stable | stable | |
| 131 Stable | 130,90508406 ± 0,00000024 | 21,2324% ± 0,0030% | Stable | stable | |
| 132 Stable | 131,9041550856 ± 0,0000000056 | 26,9086% ± 0,0033% | Stable | stable |
Propriétés étendues
Rayons covalents (données étendues)
- Rayon covalent (Pyykkö)
- 131 pm
- Rayon covalent (Pyykkö, liaison double)
- 135 pm
- Rayon covalent (Pyykkö, liaison triple)
- 122 pm
Rayons de van der Waals
- Bondi
- 216 pm
- Alvarez
- 228 pm
- UFF
- 440,4 pm
- MM3
- 228 pm
Rayons atomiques et métalliques
- Rayon atomique (Rahm)
- 232 pm
Échelles de numérotation
- Mendeleev
- 116
- Pettifor
- 5
- Glawe
- 5
Échelles d’électronégativité
- Ghosh
- 0
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
Polarisabilité et dispersion
- Polarisabilité dipolaire
- 27,32 a.u.
- Polarisabilité dipolaire (incertitude)
- 0,2 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 302 Ha·Bohr6
Affinité chimique
- Affinité protonique
- 499,6 kJ/mol
- Basicité en phase gazeuse
- 478,1 kJ/mol
Propriétés des gaz nobles
| O₂ | forms oxides indirectly (XeO3, XeO4) |
| HALOGENS | XeF2, XeF4, XeF6 |
| OXIDES_TYPE | acidic |
Transitions de phase et allotropes
| Point de fusion | 161,4 K |
| Point d’ébullition | 165,05 K |
| Point critique (température) | 289,73 K |
| Point critique (pression) | 5,84 MPa |
| Point triple (température) | 161,4 K |
| Point triple (pression) | 81,77 kPa |
Catégories d’états d’oxydation
Données de référence avancées
Constantes d’écran (11)
| n | Orbitale | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1,0785 |
| 2 | p | 4,1654 |
| 2 | s | 14,197 |
| 3 | d | 14,0532 |
| 3 | p | 18,3324 |
| 3 | s | 18,4236 |
| 4 | d | 32,1068 |
| 4 | p | 29,0428 |
| 4 | s | 27,8272 |
| 5 | p | 41,5755 |
Détail des rayons cristallins (2)
| Charge | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Origine |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 8 | IV | 54 | ||
| 8 | VI | 62 |
Modes de désintégration des isotopes (68)
| Isotope | Mode | Intensité |
|---|---|---|
| 108 | A | 100% |
| 109 | A | 100% |
| 109 | B+ | — |
| 109 | B+p | — |
| 110 | A | 64% |
| 110 | B+ | 36% |
| 110 | B+p | — |
| 111 | B+ | 89,6% |
| 111 | A | 10,4% |
| 111 | B+p | — |
Facteurs de diffusion des rayons X (509)
| Énergie (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0 |
| 10,1617 | — | 0 |
| 10,3261 | — | 0 |
| 10,4931 | — | 0 |
| 10,6628 | — | 0 |
| 10,8353 | — | 0 |
| 11,0106 | — | 0 |
| 11,1886 | — | 0 |
| 11,3696 | — | 0 |
| 11,5535 | — | 0 |
Données complémentaires
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
3×10-5 milligrams per kilogram
Références (1)
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
Références (1)
Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology
Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.
Radiogenic xenon isotopes are produced by nuclear reactions in atomic bombs and nuclear reactors. For example, 131Xe, 133Xe, and 135Xe are some of the fission products of 235U and 239Pu, and finding these isotopes would be evidence of a nuclear bomb reaction. Measurements of xenon isotopes (e.g. in the atmosphere or the subsurface) have been used to identify contamination from these sources, for example, to detect faults in nuclear reactors or to monitor compliance with nuclear test bans (Fig. IUPAC.54.1) [396] P. R. J. Saey, C. Schlosser, P. Achim, M. Auer, A. Axelsson, A. Becker, X. Blanchard, G. Brachet, L. Cella, L.-E. De Geer, M. B. Kalinowski, G. Le Petit, J. Peterson, V. Popov, Y. Popov, A. Ringbom, H. Sartorius, T. Taffary, M. Zähringer. Pure Appl. Geophy.167, 499 (2010)..
Références (2)
- [396] P. R. J. Saey, C. Schlosser, P. Achim, M. Auer, A. Axelsson, A. Becker, X. Blanchard, G. Brachet, L. Cella, L.-E. De Geer, M. B. Kalinowski, G. Le Petit, J. Peterson, V. Popov, Y. Popov, A. Ringbom, H. Sartorius, T. Taffary, M. Zähringer. Pure Appl. Geophy.167, 499 (2010).
- [4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703
Références
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Xenon.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.