Molybdenum (Mo)
transition-metalSolid
Peso atómico estándar
95,95 uConfiguración electrónica
[Kr] 5s1 4d5Punto de fusión
2622,85 °CPunto de ebullición
4638,85 °CDensidad
1,02e+4 kg/m³Estados de oxidación
−4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6Electronegatividad (Pauling)
2,16Energía de ionización (1.ª)
7,09243 eVAño de descubrimiento
1778Radio atómico
145 pmDetalles
Molybdenum is a hard refractory transition metal of group 6. It is notable for its high melting point, useful alloying behavior, and rich redox chemistry. In nature it occurs mainly as molybdenite, and industrially it is important in steels, superalloys, catalysts, and lubricating sulfide materials. In biology, molybdenum is an essential trace element because several enzymes use molybdenum cofactors for oxygen-atom transfer and related redox reactions.
The metal is silvery white, very hard, but is softer and more ductile than tungsten. It has a high elastic modulus, and only tungsten and tantalum, of the more readily available metals, have higher melting points. It is a valuable alloying agent, as it contributes to the hardenability and toughness of quenched and tempered steels. It also improves the strength of steel at high temperatures.
The name derives from the Greek molybdos for "lead". The ancients used the term "lead" for any black mineral that leaves a mark on paper. Molybdenum was discovered by the Swedish pharmacist and chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778. It was first isolated by the Swedish chemist Peter-Jacob Hjelm in 1781.
Molybdenum was discovered by Carl Welhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist, in 1778 in a mineral known as molybdenite (MoS2) which had been confused as a lead compound. Molybdenum was isolated by Peter Jacob Hjelm in 1781. Today, most molybdenum is obtained from molybdenite, wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (CaMoO4). These ores typically occur in conjunction with ores of tin and tungsten. Molybdenum is also obtained as a byproduct of mining and processing tungsten and copper.
From the Greek word molybdo, lead. Before Scheele recognized molybdenite as a distinct ore of a new element in 1778, it was confused with graphite and lead ore. The metal was prepared in impure form in 1782 by Hjelm. Molybdenum does not occur natively, but is obtained principally from molybdenite. Wulfenite, and Powellite are also minor commercial ores.
Pure molybdenum is a silvery gray metal with a bright metallic luster when freshly prepared. It is solid under ordinary conditions, dense, and mechanically strong at elevated temperature. Massive metal is much less reactive than fine powder, which has a larger surface area and oxidizes more readily.
Molybdenum is used chiefly as an alloying element in steels and cast irons, where it improves hardenability, high-temperature strength, creep resistance, and resistance to some forms of corrosion. Molybdenum metal and alloys are used in high-temperature furnace parts, electrical contacts, glass-melting electrodes, and sputtering targets. Molybdenum disulfide, MoS₂, is a solid lubricant. Molybdenum compounds are also used in petroleum refining catalysts, pigments, corrosion inhibitors, and as sources for producing the medical isotope technetium-99m from molybdenum-99.
Molybdenum has a high melting point and is used to make the electrodes of electrically heated glass furnaces. Some electrical filaments are also made from molybdenum. The metal is used to make some missile and aircraft parts and is used in the nuclear power industry. Molybdenum is also used as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum.
Molybdenum is primarily used as an alloying agent in steel. When added to steel in concentrations between 0.25% and 8%, molybdenum forms ultra-high strength steels that can withstand pressures up to 300,000 pounds per square inch. Molybdenum also improves the strength of steel at high temperatures. When alloyed with nickel, molybdenum forms heat and corrosion resistant materials used in the chemical industry.
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), one of molybdenum's compounds, is used as a high temperature lubricant. Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3), another molybdenum compound, is used to adhere enamels to metals. Other molybdenum compounds include: molybdic acid (H2MoO4), molybdenum hexafluoride (MoF6) and molybdenum phosphide (MoP2).
It is used in certain nickel-based alloys, such as the "Hastelloys(R)" which are heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant to chemical solutions. Molybdenum oxidizes at elevated temperatures. The metal has found recent application as electrodes for electrically heated glass furnaces and forehearths. The metal is also used in nuclear energy applications and for missile and aircraft parts. Molybdenum is valuable as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum. It has found applications as a filament material in electronic and electrical applications. Molybdenum is an essential trace element in plant nutrition; some lands are barren for lack of this element in the soil. Molybdenum sulfide is useful as a lubricant, especially at high temperatures where oils would decompose. Almost all ultra-high strength steels with minimum yield points up to 300,000 psi (lb/in.2) contain molybdenum in amounts from 0.25 to 8%. Biologically, molybdenum as a trace element is necessary for nitrogen fixation and other metabolic processes.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Molybdenites display a variation in isotopic composition (Fig. IUPAC.42.1) [316] A. J. Pietruszka, R. J. Walker, P. A. Candela. Chem. Geol.225, 121 (2006).. The isotopic composition of molybdenum in ocean sediments depends on oxygen levels in the ocean. When oxygen levels are high, the lighter isotopes of molybdenum are scavenged by iron and manganese oxides into sediments. However, when oxygen levels are low, the mechanism for molybdenum removal becomes more efficient and more of the heavier isotopes of molybdenum are found in iron and manganese oxides. Thus, the molybdenum isotopic composition of these sediments can be used as a proxy for oxygen levels in the paleo oceans (history of the oceans in the geological past) to gain insights into mechanisms that may have been responsible for mass-extinction events in the Earth’s history [317] B. C. Proemse, S. E. Grasby, M. E. Wieser, B. Mayer, B. Beauchamp. Geology41, 967 (2013)..
Isotopes in Industry
Depleted 95Mo has been used in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Tennessee, USA). The use of U-10Mo fuel elements (90 percent uranium, 10 percent molybdenum) would allow the conversion from high-enrichment uranium (HEU) fuel, 92 percent, to low-enrichment uranium (LEU) fuel, below 20 percent, for nuclear non-proliferation purposes [319] S. Mirzadeh, F. F. Knapp Jr., E. D. Collins. 5774782, Filed..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
95Mo is used to produce medical radioisotope 97Ru via the 95Mo (4He, 2n) 97Ru reaction. The isotope 99Mo is commercially produced by the fission of 235U and is the parent radionuclide of 99mTc, which is the most widely used radiopharmaceutical in the world. The much longer half-life of 99Mo (about 66 h) enables the radionuclide to be transported more easily than the short-lived (6 h half-life) 99mTc. The n(99Mo)/n(99mTc) amount-ratio generator was originally developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory (Fig. IUPAC.42.2) in the early 1960s and is now a patented system [320] U. Abram, R. Alberto. J. Braz. Chem. Soc.17, 1486 (2006)..
Molybdenum chemistry is dominated by oxidation states from 0 to +6, with +4, +5, and +6 especially common. Molybdenum trioxide, MoO₃, and molybdates such as sodium molybdate, Na₂MoO₄, contain Mo(VI) and are important industrial and laboratory materials. Molybdenum disulfide, MoS₂, has a layered structure and is both a mineral and a useful solid lubricant. The element also forms halides such as molybdenum pentachloride, MoCl₅, organometallic carbonyls such as molybdenum hexacarbonyl, Mo(CO)₆, and many cluster compounds with metal-metal bonding.
See more information at the Molybdenum compound page.
Massive molybdenum metal is not highly hazardous in normal handling, but dusts and fumes can irritate the respiratory tract and may present combustible-dust risks under some conditions. Soluble molybdates can be toxic at elevated exposure, and excessive intake interferes with copper metabolism in animals. Molybdenum-99 is radioactive and must be handled with isotope-specific controls. Strong oxidizing or volatile molybdenum compounds require compound-specific precautions.
Molybdenum is a trace element in rocks, soils, waters, and living organisms. Weathering releases molybdate species, which are relatively mobile under neutral to alkaline oxidizing conditions and less mobile where adsorption or sulfide formation is favored. It is an essential micronutrient for plants and microorganisms, especially in nitrogen metabolism, but high soil molybdenum can contribute to copper deficiency in grazing animals.
Commercial molybdenum is obtained mainly from molybdenite concentrates, either from primary molybdenum mines or as a by-product of copper porphyry operations. Roasting converts molybdenite to molybdenum trioxide, MoO₃, which can be purified, reduced to metal, or converted to ferro-molybdenum for steelmaking. Demand is closely tied to alloy steel, stainless steel, energy, chemical processing, and catalyst markets. Recycling occurs from alloy scrap and spent catalysts, although recovery depends on grade, contamination, and processing economics.
Molybdenum is also recovered as a by-product of copper and tungsten mining operations. The metal is prepared from the powder made by the hydrogen reduction of purified molybdic trioxide or ammonium molybdate.
Molybdenum is a moderately rare heavy element in the cosmos. Its stable isotopes are produced by several nucleosynthetic processes, including slow and rapid neutron capture, with some proton-rich isotopes associated with rarer p-process pathways. In planetary materials it behaves as a refractory and siderophile to chalcophile element, so its distribution records metal-silicate separation and sulfide chemistry.
- Molybdenum has seven naturally occurring stable isotopes.
- The name comes from an old term for lead-like minerals, because molybdenite was once confused with graphite and lead ore
- Molybdenum disulfide keeps lubricating in vacuum better than many oils.
- Molybdenum enzymes are essential for nitrate reduction in many plants.
- Ferro-molybdenum is often the practical form added to steel melts.
Imágenes
Propiedades
Físicas
- Radio atómico (empírico)
- 145 pm Comparar Radio atómico (empírico) de todos los elementos →
- Radio covalente
- 154 pm Comparar Radio covalente de todos los elementos →
- Radio de van der Waals
- 209 pm Comparar Radio de van der Waals de todos los elementos →
- Radio metálico
- 130 pm Comparar Radio metálico de todos los elementos →
- Densidad
- 1,02 × 104 kg/m³ Comparar Densidad de todos los elementos →
- Volumen molar
- 0,0094 L/mol
- Fase en CNPT
- Sólido Comparar Fase en CNPT de todos los elementos →
- Punto de fusión
- 2622,85 °C Comparar Punto de fusión de todos los elementos →
- Punto de ebullición
- 4638,85 °C Comparar Punto de ebullición de todos los elementos →
- Capacidad calorífica específica
- 0,251 J/(g·K) Comparar Capacidad calorífica específica de todos los elementos →
- Capacidad calorífica molar
- 24,06 J/(mol·K) Comparar Capacidad calorífica molar de todos los elementos →
- Estructura cristalina
- Cúbica centrada en el cuerpo Comparar Estructura cristalina de todos los elementos →
Químicas
- Electronegatividad (Pauling)
- 2,16 Comparar Electronegatividad (Pauling) de todos los elementos →
- Electronegatividad (Allen)
- 1,47
- Afinidad electrónica
- 0,744 eV
- Energía de ionización (1.ª)
- 7,09243 eV Comparar Energía de ionización (1.ª) de todos los elementos →
- Energía de ionización (2.ª)
- 16,160056 eV Comparar Energía de ionización (2.ª) de todos los elementos →
- Energía de ionización (3.ª)
- 27,130093 eV Comparar Energía de ionización (3.ª) de todos los elementos →
- Energía de ionización (4.ª)
- 40,330139 eV Comparar Energía de ionización (4.ª) de todos los elementos →
- Energía de ionización (5.ª)
- 54,417187 eV Comparar Energía de ionización (5.ª) de todos los elementos →
- Estados de oxidación
- −4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 Comparar Estados de oxidación de todos los elementos →
- Electrones de valencia
- 6 Comparar Electrones de valencia de todos los elementos →
- Configuración electrónica
- [Kr] 5s1 4d5
Termodinámicas
- Calor de fusión
- 0,29020055 eV Comparar Calor de fusión de todos los elementos →
- Calor de vaporización
- 5,088874 eV Comparar Calor de vaporización de todos los elementos →
- Calor de sublimación
- 6,819713 eV
- Calor de atomización
- 6,819713 eV
- Entalpía de atomización
- 6,82987 eV
Nucleares
- Protones
- 42 Comparar Protones de todos los elementos →
- Neutrones
- 54 Comparar Neutrones de todos los elementos →
- Isótopos conocidos
- 39 Comparar Isótopos conocidos de todos los elementos →
- Isótopos estables
- 4 Comparar Isótopos estables de todos los elementos →
- Isótopo más estable
- Mo-96
- Año de descubrimiento
- 1778
Abundancia
- Abundancia (corteza terrestre)
- 1,2 mg/kg Comparar Abundancia (corteza terrestre) de todos los elementos →
- Abundancia (océano)
- 0,01 mg/L Comparar Abundancia (océano) de todos los elementos →
Estructura cristalina
- Constante de red a
- 315 pm
Estructura electrónica
- Electrones por capa
- 2, 8, 18, 13, 1 Comparar Electrones por capa de todos los elementos →
Identificadores
- Número CAS
- 7439-98-7 Comparar Número CAS de todos los elementos →
- Símbolo del término
- 7S3
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Mo
- Clave InChI
- ZOKXTWBITQBERF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Configuración electrónica Medido
Mo: 4d⁵ 5s¹[Kr] 4d⁵ 5s¹1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d⁵ 5s¹Modelo atómico
Los isótopos cambian el número de neutrones, la masa y la estabilidad, pero no la configuración electrónica de un átomo neutro.
Modelo atómico esquemático, no a escala.
Huella atómica
Espectro de emisión / absorción
Distribución isotópica
| Número másico | Masa atómica (u) | Abundancia natural | Periodo de semidesintegración |
|---|---|---|---|
| 94 Estable | 93,9050849 ± 0,00000048 | 9,1500% | Estable |
| 95 Estable | 94,90583877 ± 0,00000047 | 15,8400% | Estable |
| 96 Estable | 95,90467612 ± 0,00000047 | 16,6700% | Estable |
| 97 Estable | 96,90601812 ± 0,00000049 | 9,6000% | Estable |
Fase / Estado
Motivo: 2597,8 °C por debajo del punto de fusión (2622,85 °C)
Esquemático, no a escala
Puntos de transición de fase
Energías de transición
Energía necesaria para fundir 1 mol en el punto de fusión
Energía necesaria para vaporizar 1 mol en el punto de ebullición
Energía necesaria para sublimar 1 mol en el punto de sublimación
Densidad
En condiciones estándar
En condiciones estándar
Espectros atómicos
Se muestran 10 de 42. Ordenado por carga del ion (ascendente).
Líneas disponibles ?
| Ion | Carga | Total de líneas | Probabilidades de transición | Designaciones de los niveles |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mo I | 0 | 818 | 721 | 808 |
| Mo II | +1 | 209 | 0 | 0 |
| Mo III | +2 | 62 | 0 | 0 |
| Mo IV | +3 | 29 | 0 | 0 |
| Mo V | +4 | 966 | 923 | 929 |
| Mo VI | +5 | 245 | 245 | 245 |
| Mo VII | +6 | 413 | 0 | 413 |
| Mo VIII | +7 | 109 | 0 | 109 |
| Mo IX | +8 | 231 | 0 | 231 |
| Mo X | +9 | 120 | 0 | 120 |
Niveles disponibles ?
| Ion | Carga | Niveles |
|---|---|---|
| Mo I | 0 | 428 |
| Mo II | +1 | 249 |
| Mo III | +2 | 120 |
| Mo IV | +3 | 81 |
| Mo V | +4 | 258 |
| Mo VI | +5 | 113 |
| Mo VII | +6 | 96 |
| Mo VIII | +7 | 77 |
| Mo IX | +8 | 93 |
| Mo X | +9 | 48 |
Radios iónicos
| Carga | Coordinación | Espín | Radio |
|---|---|---|---|
| +3 | 6 | N/D | 69 pm |
| +4 | 6 | N/D | 65 pm |
| +5 | 4 | N/D | 46 pm |
| +5 | 6 | N/D | 61 pm |
| +6 | 4 | N/D | 41 pm |
| +6 | 5 | N/D | 50 pm |
| +6 | 6 | N/D | 59 pm |
| +6 | 7 | N/D | 73 pm |
Compuestos
Isótopos (4)
| Número másico | Masa atómica (u) | Abundancia natural | Periodo de semidesintegración | Modo de desintegración | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 94 Estable | 93,9050849 ± 0,00000048 | 9,1500% ± 0,0900% | Estable | stable | |
| 95 Estable | 94,90583877 ± 0,00000047 | 15,8400% ± 0,1100% | Estable | stable | |
| 96 Estable | 95,90467612 ± 0,00000047 | 16,6700% ± 0,1500% | Estable | stable | |
| 97 Estable | 96,90601812 ± 0,00000049 | 9,6000% ± 0,1400% | Estable | stable |
Líneas espectrales
| Longitud de onda (nm) | Intensidad | Estado de ionización | Tipo | Transición | Exactitud | Fuente | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 382.2548 nm | 290 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3P* | Medida | NIST | |
| 383.9084 nm | 360 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3P* | Medida | NIST | |
| 386 nm | N/D | ID 915 | emission | 1s.5s 3S → 1s.5p 3P* | Medida | NIST | |
| 393.8911 nm | 1400 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3P* | Medida | NIST | |
| 394.8336 nm | 50 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 1F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 400.9437 nm | 35 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 1D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 403.6485 nm | 40 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7f 2F* → 4p6.8g 2G | Medida | NIST | |
| 405.4556 nm | 50 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7f 2F* → 4p6.8g 2G | Medida | NIST | |
| 406.1547 nm | 210 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3P* | Medida | NIST | |
| 406.2019 nm | 15000 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7p 2P* → 4p6.7d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 406.4706 nm | 14 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 1D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 406.527 nm | 3500 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 407.1568 nm | 2800 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 1F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 407.4773 nm | 3100 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 416.4901 nm | 75 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.6g 2G → 4p6.7f 2F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 418.4284 nm | 60 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.6g 2G → 4p6.7f 2F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 418.6616 nm | 2700 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 422.59 nm | N/D | ID 896 | emission | 2p 2P* → 2s 2S | Medida | NIST | |
| 423.2026 nm | 40000 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7p 2P* → 4p6.7d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 427.2928 nm | 100 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7p 2P* → 4p6.7d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 433.4926 nm | 840 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 436 nm | N/D | ID 915 | emission | 1s.4p 3P* → 1s.4d 3D | Medida | NIST | |
| 438.442 nm | 2900 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 439.9605 nm | 28 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 446.6307 nm | 79 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 1D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 447.4143 nm | 63 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 454.3076 nm | 570 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<3/2>).6s 2[3/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 462.464 nm | 840 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 1D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 463.7675 nm | 41 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 466.0971 nm | 100 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.5f 2F* → 4p6.6d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 468.7277 nm | 22 | Mo V | emission | 4p6.4d.(2D<5/2>).6s 2[5/2] → 4p6.4d.6p 3D* | Medida | NIST | |
| 474.6519 nm | 8000 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.5f 2F* → 4p6.6d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 504.622 nm | N/D | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7g 2G → 4p6.8h 2H* | Medida | NIST | |
| 504.622 nm | N/D | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7g 2G → 4p6.8h 2H* | Medida | NIST | |
| 524.749 nm | N/D | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7h 2H* → 4p6.8i 2I | Medida | NIST | |
| 524.749 nm | N/D | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7h 2H* → 4p6.8i 2I | Medida | NIST | |
| 527.675 nm | N/D | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7i 2I → 4p6.8k 2K* | Medida | NIST | |
| 527.675 nm | N/D | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7i 2I → 4p6.8k 2K* | Medida | NIST | |
| 558.5 nm | 200 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.8d 2D → 4p6.8f 2F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 562 nm | 350 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.8d 2D → 4p6.8f 2F* | Medida | NIST | |
| 587.138 nm | 300 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.7d 2D → 4p6.8p 2P* | Medida | NIST | |
| 603.562 nm | 10 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.4f 2F* → 4p6.5d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 618.867 nm | 1400 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.4f 2F* → 4p6.5d 2D | Medida | NIST | |
| 633.604 nm | 1000 | Mo VI | emission | 4p6.4f 2F* → 4p6.5d 2D | Medida | NIST |
Propiedades ampliadas
Radios covalentes (ampliados)
- Radio covalente (Pyykkö)
- 138 pm
- Radio covalente (Pyykkö, enlace doble)
- 121 pm
- Radio covalente (Pyykkö, enlace triple)
- 113 pm
Radios de van der Waals
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 245 pm
- UFF
- 305,2 pm
- MM3
- 239 pm
Radios atómicos y metálicos
- Radio atómico (Rahm)
- 244 pm
- Radio metálico (C12)
- 139 pm
Escalas de numeración
- Mendeleev
- 52
- Pettifor
- 55
- Glawe
- 56
Escalas de electronegatividad
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 4
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 2
Polarizabilidad y dispersión
- Polarizabilidad dipolar
- 87 a.u.
- Polarizabilidad dipolar (incert.)
- 6 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 1030 Ha·Bohr6
Parámetros de Miedema
- Volumen molar de Miedema
- 9,4 cm3/mol
- Densidad electrónica de Miedema
- 6
Riesgo de suministro y economía
- Concentración de la producción
- 40
- Riesgo relativo de suministro
- 9
- Distribución de las reservas
- 43
- Estabilidad política (principal productor)
- 24
- Estabilidad política (país con mayores reservas)
- 24
Transiciones de fase y alótropos
| Punto de fusión | 2895,15 K |
| Punto de ebullición | 4912,15 K |
Categorías de estados de oxidación
Datos de referencia avanzados
Constantes de apantallamiento (10)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0,8744 |
| 2 | p | 4,0282 |
| 2 | s | 11,1232 |
| 3 | d | 14,7717 |
| 3 | p | 16,5264 |
| 3 | s | 16,0185 |
| 4 | d | 30,6076 |
| 4 | p | 27,0232 |
| 4 | s | 25,9036 |
| 5 | s | 35,894 |
Detalle de los radios cristalinos (8)
| Carga | CN | Espín | rcrystal (pm) | Origen |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | VI | 83 | estimated, | |
| 4 | VI | 79 | from r^3 vs V plots, from metallic oxides, | |
| 5 | IV | 60 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 5 | VI | 75 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 6 | IV | 55 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 6 | V | 64 | ||
| 6 | VI | 73 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 6 | VII | 87 |
Modos de desintegración de los isótopos (58)
| Isótopo | Modo | Intensidad |
|---|---|---|
| 81 | B+ | — |
| 81 | B+p | — |
| 82 | B+ | — |
| 82 | B+p | — |
| 83 | B+ | 100% |
| 83 | B+p | — |
| 84 | B+ | 100% |
| 84 | B+p | — |
| 85 | B+ | 100% |
| 85 | B+p | 0,1% |
Factores de dispersión de rayos X (909)
| Energía (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 2,2382 |
| 10,1447 | — | 2,20464 |
| 10,3088 | — | 2,17288 |
| 10,4756 | — | 2,14408 |
| 10,645 | — | 2,11566 |
| 10,8172 | — | 2,09307 |
| 10,9921 | — | 2,12057 |
| 11,1699 | — | 2,20711 |
| 11,3506 | — | 2,32651 |
| 11,5342 | — | 2,50051 |
Datos adicionales
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.2 milligrams per kilogram
Referencias (1)
- [5] Molybdenum https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele042.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
1×10-2 milligrams per liter
Referencias (1)
- [5] Molybdenum https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele042.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
Molybdenum is also recovered as a by-product of copper and tungsten mining operations. The metal is prepared from the powder made by the hydrogen reduction of purified molybdic trioxide or ammonium molybdate.
Referencias (1)
- [6] Molybdenum https://periodic.lanl.gov/42.shtml
Referencias
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Molybdenum.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.