Ytterbium (Yb)
lanthanideSolid
Standardatomgewicht
173,054 uElektronenkonfiguration
[Xe] 6s2 4f14Schmelzpunkt
818,85 °CSiedepunkt
1195,85 °CDichte
6900 kg/m³Oxidationszustände
0, +1, +2, +3Elektronegativität (Pauling)
N/AIonisierungsenergie (1.)
6,25416 eVEntdeckungsjahr
1878Atomradius
175 pmDetails
Ytterbium is a soft, silvery lanthanide metal with atomic number 70. It is one of the heavier rare-earth elements and is chemically notable for the relative stability of the divalent Yb²⁺ state as well as the usual trivalent Yb³⁺ state. This accessible redox pair gives ytterbium a larger and more variable metallic radius than neighboring lanthanides and is important in its organometallic and solid-state chemistry. Natural ytterbium is a mixture of several stable isotopes.
Ytterbium has a bright silvery luster, is soft, malleable, and quite ductile. Even though the element is fairly stable, it should be kept in closed containers to protect it from air and moisture. Ytterbium is readily attacked and dissolved by dilute and concentrated mineral acids and reacts slowly with water. Ytterbium has three allotropic forms with transformation points at -13°C and 795°C: The beta form is a room-temperature, face-centered, cubic modification, while the high-temperature gamma form is a body-centered cubic form. Another body-centered cubic phase has recently been found to be stable at high pressures at room temperatures. The beta form ordinarily has metallic-type conductivity, but becomes a semiconductor when the pressure is increased about 16,000 atm. The electrical resistance increases tenfold as the pressure is increased to 39,000 atm and drops to about 10% of its standard temperature-pressure resistivity at a pressure of 40,000 atm. Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes. Seven other unstable isotopes are known.
The name derives from the Swedish village of Ytterby where the mineral ytterbite (the source of ytterbium) was originally found. It was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1878 in erbium nitrate from gadolinite (ytterbite renamed).
The mineral gadolinite ((Ce, La, Nd, Y)2FeBe2Si2O10), discovered in a quarry near the town of Ytterby, Sweden, has been the source of a great number of rare earth elements. In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander, a Swedish chemist, was able to separate gadolinite into three materials, which he named yttria, erbia and terbia. As might be expected considering the similarities between their names and properties, scientists soon confused erbia and terbia and, by 1877, had reversed their names. What Mosander called erbia is now called terbia and visa versa. In 1878 Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, a Swiss chemist, discovered that erbia was itself consisted of two components. One component was named ytterbia by Marignac while the other component retained the name erbia. Marignac believed that ytterbia was a compound of a new element, which he named ytterbium. Other chemists produced and experimented with ytterbium in an attempt to determine some of it's properties. Unfortunately, different scientists obtained different results from the same experiments. While some scientists believed that these inconsistent results were caused by poor procedures or faulty equipment, Georges Urbain, a French chemist, believed that ytterbium wasn't an element at all, but a mixture of two elements. In 1907, Urbain was able to separate ytterbium into two elements. Urbain named one of the elements neoytterbium (new ytterbium) and the other element lutecium. Chemists eventually changed the name neoytterbium back to ytterbium and changed the spelling of lutecium to lutetium. Due to his original belief of the composition of ytterbia, Marignac is credited with the discovery of ytterbium. Today, ytterbium is primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite sand ((Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO4), a material rich in rare earth elements.
Named after Ytterby, a village in Sweden. Marignac in 1878 discovered a new component, which he called ytterbia, in the earth then known as erbia. In 1907, Urbain separated ytterbia into two components, which he called neoytterbia and lutecia. The elements in these earths are now known as ytterbium and lutetium, respectively. These elements are identical with aldebaranium and cassiopeium, discovered independently and at about the same time by von Welsbach.
Pure ytterbium is a lustrous, silvery-white metal when freshly cut. It is soft and ductile, but it tarnishes in air and should be protected from moisture and oxygen for long-term storage. The metal exists in several solid allotropes near ordinary temperatures and pressures.
Ytterbium has specialized rather than large-volume uses. Yb³⁺-doped crystals, glasses, and fibers are important laser and optical amplifier media, especially for efficient solid-state and fiber lasers near the one-micrometre region. Ytterbium compounds are used in some infrared phosphors and scintillator-related materials. The isotope ¹⁶⁹Yb has been used as a compact gamma-ray source in industrial radiography and related inspection work. Metallic ytterbium and ytterbium reagents are also used in research chemistry, including reductive and organometallic reactions.
Ytterbium has few uses. It can be alloyed with stainless steel to improve some of its mechanical properties and used as a doping agent in fiber optic cable where it can be used as an amplifier. One of ytterbium's isotopes is being considered as a radiation source for portable X-ray machines.
Ytterbium metal has possible use in improving the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of stainless steel. One isotope is reported to have been used as a radiation source substitute for a portable X-ray machine where electricity is unavailable. Few other uses have been found.
Isotopes in Industry
169Yb (with a half-life of 32 days) emits gamma rays and can be used to create a radiographic image of an object without the use of electricity. A capsule containing 169Yb is placed on one side of the object being screened and photographic film is placed on the other. The result will indicate flaws in metal casting or welded joints [491] M. Senthilingam, L. Natrajan, B. Clegg. Chemistry in its Element-Ytterbium, Royal Society of Chemistry (2017), Feb. 25; http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/70/ytterbium., [492] H. Yamabayashi. Radioisotopes43, 296 (1994).. Gamma cameras use 169Yb as a radiation source (Fig. IUPAC.70.1). Gamma cameras are used to locate sealed radioactive sources and hot spots in historical waste. Images of the gamma ray intensity are made and then the 2-D distribution is superimposed on a picture or video image [493] International Atomic Energy Agency. Locating and Characterizing Disused Sealed Radioactive Sources in Historical Waste, p. 23. Vienna (2008)., [494] D. Vnuk. “Acoustic techniques for localizing holdup”, in 37th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management..
171Yb has been used for making an atomic clock by making use of a ytterbium optical lattice (formed by the interference of counter-propagating laser beams) (Fig. IUPAC.70.2) [495] T. H. Yoon, C. Y. Park. Laser Phys.15, 1087 (2005)., [496] Physics Laboratory, Time & Frequency Division. Yb Lattice Clock, National Institute of Standards and Technology (2017), Feb. 25; https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/yb-lattice-clock., [497] National Institute of Standards and Technology. Experimental Atomic Clock Uses Ytterbium ‘Pancakes’, National Institute of Standards and Technology (2017), Feb. 25; https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-03/nios-eac030606.php..
Isotopes in Medicine
In the treatment of prostate cancer with brachytherapy seed implants, 169Yb has been suggested as an alternative to using 125I and 103Pd [498] International Atomic Energy Agency. Production Techniques and Quality Control of Sealed Radioactive Sources of Palladium-103, Iodine-125, Iridium-192 and Ytterbium-169, IAEA-TECDOC-1512, International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna (2006)., [499] G. R. Lazarescu, J. J. Battista. Phys. Med. Biol.42, 1727 (1997)..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
The radioisotope 169Yb is manufactured using 168Yb via the reaction 168Yb (n, γ) 169Yb.
Ytterbium chemistry is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, with the +2 state unusually accessible for a lanthanide. The common sesquioxide ytterbium(III) oxide, Yb₂O₃, is a stable white solid used as a starting material for many salts and ceramics. Ytterbium(III) chloride, YbCl₃, and ytterbium(III) nitrate, Yb(NO₃)₃, form hydrated salts and coordination complexes. Divalent ytterbium(II) iodide, YbI₂, is a strong reducing reagent, while ytterbium(II) bromide, YbBr₂, illustrates the stability of Yb²⁺ in halides. Organoytterbium compounds are moisture-sensitive and mainly of research interest.
See more information at the Ytterbium compound page.
Massive ytterbium metal has low acute chemical toxicity by comparison with many heavy metals, but fine powder can present fire and dust hazards. Soluble ytterbium salts should be handled as potentially harmful irritants because rare-earth ions can affect biological processes at sufficient concentration. Radioactive ¹⁶⁹Yb and other activated isotopes require radiation controls appropriate to the isotope and source form. Moisture-sensitive ytterbium reagents may release heat or corrosive by-products on contact with water.
Ytterbium has a low acute toxic rating.
Ytterbium occurs naturally in rare-earth minerals such as monazite and xenotime, usually with other heavy lanthanides rather than as a separate mineral species. In soils and waters it is expected to occur mainly as Yb³⁺ complexes or adsorbed to mineral and organic surfaces. It has no known essential biological role. Environmental releases are generally associated with rare-earth mining, processing residues, polishing and electronic wastes, or laboratory disposal, and its mobility depends strongly on acidity and complexing ligands.
Ytterbium is recovered as a minor component during the processing of rare-earth ores, especially ion-adsorption clays and heavy-rare-earth concentrates, and is separated by solvent extraction or ion-exchange methods. It is not mined for itself, and supply is tied to broader rare-earth production and separation capacity. Demand is modest but technically important, led by laser materials, specialty phosphors, research reagents, and isotope applications. High-purity ytterbium metal and isotopically enriched materials are specialty products. Recycling is limited because most uses disperse small quantities in complex optical or electronic materials.
Ytterbium occurs along with other rare earths in a number of rare minerals. It is commercially recovered principally from monazite sand, which contains about 0.03%. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in recent years have greatly simplified the separation of the rare earths from one another.
Ytterbium is a heavy element made mainly by neutron-capture nucleosynthesis, with contributions from both slow and rapid neutron-capture processes before incorporation into later generations of stars and planets. It is far less abundant cosmically than iron-group or light elements. In the solar system it is a refractory lithophile element and is concentrated with other rare earths in planetary crustal materials rather than in metallic cores or volatile phases.
- Ytterbium was named from Ytterby, Sweden, the same locality that inspired several rare-earth element names.
- Its divalent metal compounds often resemble alkaline-earth chemistry more than typical lanthanide chemistry.
- Natural ytterbium contains seven stable isotopes, an unusually large number for a rare-earth element.
- Ytterbium fiber lasers are valued partly because Yb³⁺ has a simple electronic structure that reduces unwanted absorption
- Ytterbium metal has a comparatively low density for a heavy lanthanide because of its divalent metallic bonding.
Bilder
Eigenschaften
Physikalisch
- Atomradius (empirisch)
- 175 pm Vergleiche Atomradius (empirisch) aller Elemente →
- Kovalenzradius
- 187 pm Vergleiche Kovalenzradius aller Elemente →
- Van-der-Waals-Radius
- 242 pm Vergleiche Van-der-Waals-Radius aller Elemente →
- Dichte
- 6900 kg/m³ Vergleiche Dichte aller Elemente →
- Molares Volumen
- 0,0248 L/mol
- Aggregatzustand bei Standardbedingungen
- Fest Vergleiche Aggregatzustand bei Standardbedingungen aller Elemente →
- Schmelzpunkt
- 818,85 °C Vergleiche Schmelzpunkt aller Elemente →
- Siedepunkt
- 1195,85 °C Vergleiche Siedepunkt aller Elemente →
- Spezifische Wärmekapazität
- 0,155 J/(g·K) Vergleiche Spezifische Wärmekapazität aller Elemente →
- Molare Wärmekapazität
- 26,74 J/(mol·K) Vergleiche Molare Wärmekapazität aller Elemente →
- Kristallstruktur
- Flächenzentriert kubisch Vergleiche Kristallstruktur aller Elemente →
Chemisch
- Elektronenaffinität
- -0,02 eV (negativer Wert — das Atom bindet voraussichtlich kein zusätzliches Elektron)
- Ionisierungsenergie (1.)
- 6,25416 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (1.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (2.)
- 12,179227 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (2.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (3.)
- 25,053086 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (3.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (4.)
- 43,61015 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (4.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (5.)
- 65,600226 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (5.) aller Elemente →
- Oxidationszustände
- 0, +1, +2, +3 Vergleiche Oxidationszustände aller Elemente →
- Valenzelektronen
- 3 Vergleiche Valenzelektronen aller Elemente →
- Elektronenkonfiguration
- [Xe] 6s2 4f14
Thermodynamisch
- Schmelzwärme
- 0,07980515 eV Vergleiche Schmelzwärme aller Elemente →
- Verdampfungswärme
- 1,336995 eV Vergleiche Verdampfungswärme aller Elemente →
- Sublimationswärme
- 1,575374 eV
- Atomisierungswärme
- 1,575374 eV
- Atomisierungsenthalpie
- 1,612686 eV
Nuklear
- Protonen
- 70 Vergleiche Protonen aller Elemente →
- Neutronen
- 104 Vergleiche Neutronen aller Elemente →
- Bekannte Isotope
- 38 Vergleiche Bekannte Isotope aller Elemente →
- Stabile Isotope
- 5 Vergleiche Stabile Isotope aller Elemente →
- Stabilstes Isotop
- Yb-174
- Entdeckungsjahr
- 1878
Häufigkeit
- Häufigkeit (Erdkruste)
- 3,2 mg/kg Vergleiche Häufigkeit (Erdkruste) aller Elemente →
- Häufigkeit (Ozean)
- 8,2 × 10−7 mg/L Vergleiche Häufigkeit (Ozean) aller Elemente →
Kristallstruktur
- Gitterkonstante a
- 549 pm
Elektronische Struktur
- Elektronen pro Schale
- 2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2 Vergleiche Elektronen pro Schale aller Elemente →
Identifikatoren
- CAS-Nummer
- 7440-64-4 Vergleiche CAS-Nummer aller Elemente →
- Termsymbol
- 1S0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Yb
- InChI-Key
- NAWDYIZEMPQZHO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Elektronenkonfiguration Gemessen
Yb: 4f¹⁴ 6s²[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 6s²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁶ 4f¹⁴ 6s²Atommodell
Isotope ändern die Neutronenzahl, Masse und Stabilität — nicht die Elektronenkonfiguration eines neutralen Atoms.
Schematisches Atommodell, nicht maßstabsgetreu.
Atomarer Fingerabdruck
Emissions- / Absorptionsspektrum
Isotopenverteilung
| Massenzahl | Atommasse (u) | Natürliche Häufigkeit | Halbwertszeit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 170 Stabil | 169,9347664 ± 0,0000022 | 2,9820% | Stabil |
| 171 Stabil | 170,9363302 ± 0,0000022 | 14,0900% | Stabil |
| 172 Stabil | 171,9363859 ± 0,0000022 | 21,6800% | Stabil |
| 173 Stabil | 172,9382151 ± 0,0000022 | 16,1030% | Stabil |
| 174 Stabil | 173,9388664 ± 0,0000022 | 32,0260% | Stabil |
Phase / Zustand
Grund: 793,9 °C unter Schmelzpunkt (818,85 °C)
Schematisch, nicht maßstabsgetreu
Phasenübergangspunkte
Übergangsenergien
Energie benötigt, um 1 mol am Schmelzpunkt zu schmelzen
Energie benötigt, um 1 mol am Siedepunkt zu verdampfen
Energie benötigt, um 1 mol am Sublimationspunkt zu sublimieren
Dichte
Bei Standardbedingungen
Bei Standardbedingungen
Atomspektren
10 von 70 angezeigt. Sortiert nach Ionenladung (aufsteigend).
Liniendaten ?
| Ion | Ladung | Gesamtlinien | Übergangswahrscheinlichkeiten | Niveau-Bezeichnungen |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yb I | 0 | 99 | 5 | 10 |
| Yb II | +1 | 327 | 10 | 10 |
| Yb III | +2 | 272 | 0 | 0 |
| Yb IV | +3 | 92 | 0 | 0 |
Niveaudaten ?
| Ion | Ladung | Niveaus |
|---|---|---|
| Yb I | 0 | 250 |
| Yb II | +1 | 349 |
| Yb III | +2 | 55 |
| Yb IV | +3 | 121 |
| Yb V | +4 | 2 |
| Yb VI | +5 | 2 |
| Yb VII | +6 | 2 |
| Yb VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Yb IX | +8 | 2 |
| Yb X | +9 | 2 |
Ionenradien
| Ladung | Koordination | Spin | Radius |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | N/A | 102 pm |
| +2 | 7 | N/A | 108 pm |
| +2 | 8 | N/A | 113.99999999999999 pm |
| +3 | 6 | N/A | 86.8 pm |
| +3 | 7 | N/A | 92.5 pm |
| +3 | 8 | N/A | 98.5 pm |
| +3 | 9 | N/A | 104.2 pm |
Verbindungen
Isotope (5)
| Massenzahl | Atommasse (u) | Natürliche Häufigkeit | Halbwertszeit | Zerfallsart | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 170 Stabil | 169,9347664 ± 0,0000022 | 2,9820% ± 0,0390% | Stabil | stable | |
| 171 Stabil | 170,9363302 ± 0,0000022 | 14,0900% ± 0,1400% | Stabil | stable | |
| 172 Stabil | 171,9363859 ± 0,0000022 | 21,6800% ± 0,1300% | Stabil | stable | |
| 173 Stabil | 172,9382151 ± 0,0000022 | 16,1030% ± 0,0630% | Stabil | stable | |
| 174 Stabil | 173,9388664 ± 0,0000022 | 32,0260% ± 0,0800% | Stabil | stable |
Erweiterte Eigenschaften
Kovalente Radien (Erweitert)
- Kovalenzradius (Pyykkö)
- 170 pm
- Kovalenzradius (Pyykkö, doppelt)
- 129 pm
Van-der-Waals-Radien
- Alvarez
- 280 pm
- UFF
- 335,5 pm
- MM3
- 279 pm
Atom- & Metallische Radien
- Atomradius (Rahm)
- 277 pm
Nummerierungsskalen
- Mendeleev
- 39
- Pettifor
- 17
- Glawe
- 18
Elektronegativitätsskalen
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 3
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 3
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 2
Polarisierbarkeit & Dispersion
- Dipolpolarisierbarkeit
- 139 a.u.
- Dipolpolarisierbarkeit (Uns.)
- 6 a.u.
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 1910 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema-Parameter
- Miedema-Molvolumen
- 17,97 cm3/mol
- Miedema-Elektronendichte
- 2
Lieferrisiko & Wirtschaftlichkeit
- Produktionskonzentration
- 97
- Relatives Lieferrisiko
- 10
- Reservenverteilung
- 50
- Politische Stabilität (Top-Produzent)
- 24
- Politische Stabilität (Top-Reserven)
- 24
Phasenübergänge & Allotrope
| Schmelzpunkt | 1097,15 K |
| Siedepunkt | 1469,15 K |
Oxidationszustands-Kategorien
Erweiterte Referenzdaten
Abschirmkonstanten (13)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 1,3611 |
| 2 | p | 4,3716 |
| 2 | s | 18,306 |
| 3 | d | 13,6033 |
| 3 | p | 20,6635 |
| 3 | s | 21,2398 |
| 4 | d | 36,4104 |
| 4 | f | 40,568 |
| 4 | p | 33,598 |
| 4 | s | 32,4824 |
Kristallradien-Details (7)
| Ladung | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Herkunft |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 116 | ||
| 2 | VII | 122 | estimated, | |
| 2 | VIII | 128 | ||
| 3 | VI | 100,8 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | VII | 106,5 | estimated, | |
| 3 | VIII | 112,5 | from r^3 vs V plots, | |
| 3 | IX | 118,2 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
Isotopenzerfallsarten (45)
| Isotop | Modus | Intensität |
|---|---|---|
| 148 | B+ | — |
| 148 | B+p | — |
| 149 | B+ | 100% |
| 149 | B+p | 100% |
| 150 | B+ | — |
| 151 | B+ | 100% |
| 151 | B+p | — |
| 152 | B+ | 100% |
| 153 | B+ | — |
| 153 | A | — |
Röntgenstreufaktoren (514)
| Energie (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 0,21734 |
| 10,1617 | — | 0,21864 |
| 10,3261 | — | 0,21994 |
| 10,4931 | — | 0,22125 |
| 10,6628 | — | 0,22256 |
| 10,8353 | — | 0,22389 |
| 11,0106 | — | 0,22522 |
| 11,1886 | — | 0,22656 |
| 11,3696 | — | 0,22886 |
| 11,5535 | — | 0,23378 |
Zusätzliche Daten
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
3.2 milligrams per kilogram
Referenzen (1)
- [5] Ytterbium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele070.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
8.2×10-7 milligrams per liter
Referenzen (1)
- [5] Ytterbium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele070.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
Ytterbium occurs along with other rare earths in a number of rare minerals. It is commercially recovered principally from monazite sand, which contains about 0.03%. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in recent years have greatly simplified the separation of the rare earths from one another.
Referenzen (1)
- [6] Ytterbium https://periodic.lanl.gov/70.shtml
Production
Production of this element (from raw materials or other compounds containing the element).
The element was first prepared by Klemm and Bonner in 1937 by reducing ytterbium trichloride with potassium. Their metal was mixed, however, with KCl. Daane, Dennison, and Spedding prepared a much purer from in 1953 from which the chemical and physical properties of the element could be determined.
Referenzen (1)
- [6] Ytterbium https://periodic.lanl.gov/70.shtml
Referenzen
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Ytterbium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.