Germanium (Ge)
metalloidSolid
Standardatomgewicht
72,63 uElektronenkonfiguration
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2Schmelzpunkt
938,25 °CSiedepunkt
2832,85 °CDichte
5323,4 kg/m³Oxidationszustände
−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4Elektronegativität (Pauling)
2,01Ionisierungsenergie (1.)
7,899435 eVEntdeckungsjahr
1886Atomradius
125 pmDetails
Germanium is a hard, brittle metalloid in group 14, chemically intermediate between silicon and tin. It is a covalent semiconductor with a narrow band gap and forms stable compounds mainly in the +4 and +2 oxidation states. The element is not mined as a principal ore in most operations; it is commonly recovered as a by-product from zinc processing and from some coal-derived materials. Its technological importance rests on infrared optics, fiber-optic materials, semiconductor devices, and specialty catalysts.
The element is a gray-white metalloid. In pure state, the element is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010.
The name derives from the Latin germania for Germany. It was discovered and isolated by the German chemist Clemens-Alexander Winkler in 1886 in the mineral argyrodite (GeS2×4Ag2S).
First proposed to exist by Dmitri Mendeleyev in 1871 based on gaps in his newly created Periodic Table of Elements, germanium was discovered by the German chemist Clemens Winkler in the mineral argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) in 1886. Today, germanium is primarily obtained from the smelting of zinc ores and from the byproducts of burning certain types of coal.
From the Latin word Germania, Germany. Mendeleev predicted the existence of Germanium in 1871 as ekasilicon, and the element was discovered by Winkler in 1886.
Pure germanium is a lustrous, grayish-white solid with a metallic sheen. It crystallizes in the diamond-cubic structure and is brittle rather than malleable. High-purity material is commonly encountered as polycrystalline pieces, single-crystal ingots, or wafers for electronic and optical use.
Germanium is used where its optical and electronic properties are valuable rather than as a structural metal. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is added to silica glass for optical fibers because it raises refractive index. Elemental germanium and germanium-containing glasses are used in infrared lenses, windows, and thermal imaging optics. Germanium substrates support some high-efficiency multijunction solar cells. Small amounts are used in semiconductor detectors, legacy transistors, and SiGe alloys for high-speed electronics. Certain organogermanium and oxide materials have specialized roles, but broad medical uses are not established.
The largest use of germanium is in the semiconductor industry. When doped with small amounts of arsenic, gallium, indium, antimony or phosphorus, germanium is used to make transistors for use in electronic devices. Germanium is also used to create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps. Both germanium and germanium oxide (GeO) are transparent to infrared radiation and are used in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors. Some germanium compounds seem to be effective in killing some types of bacteria and are currently being studied for use in chemotherapy.
When germanium is doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. The most common use of germanium is as a semiconductor. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst.
Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors.
The high index of refraction and dispersion properties of its oxide's have made germanium useful as a component of wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives.
The field of organo-germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Isotopes in Earth/Planetary Science
Because molecules, atoms, and ions of the stable isotopes of germanium possess slightly different physical and chemical properties, they commonly will be fractionated during physical, chemical, and biological processes, giving rise to variations in isotopic abundances and in atomic weights. There are measureable variations in the isotopic abundances of germanium in terrestrial materials (Fig. IUPAC.32.1).
Isotopes in Medicine
68Ge is used to calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, which have been used for medical diagnostic procedures [268] Office of Science, Los Alamos National Laboratory. Isotope Production and Applications, Los Alamos National Laboratory (2017), Feb. 26; http://www.lanl.gov/science-innovation/science-programs/office-of-science-programs/nuclear-physics/isotopes/_assets/docs/isotope-program-brochure.pdf..
Isotopes Used as a Source of Radioactive Isotope(s)
72Ge and 74Ge are used to produce the radioactive isotopes 72As and 74As, with half-lives of 26 h and 17.8 days, respectively. The arsenic nuclei can attach to tumors and the decay of these isotopes is used to image the location of cancerous tumors in vivovia the 72Ge (n, p) 72As reaction and the 74Ge (n, p) 74As reaction [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008).. 70Ge, 72Ge, and 74Ge have all been used to produce the medical radioisotope 73Se via the 70Ge (4He, n) 73Se reaction, via the 72Ge (4He, 3n) 73Se reaction and via the reaction 74Ge (4He, 5n) 73Se, respectively [269] M. Jennewein, M. A. Lewis, D. Zhao, E. Tsyganov, N. Slavine, J. He, L. Watkins, V. D. Kodibagkar, S. O’Kelly, P. Kulkarni, P. P. Antich, A. Hermanne, F. Rösch, R. P. Mason, P. E. Thorpe. Clin. Cancer Res.14, 1377 (2008)..
Germanium chemistry resembles a heavier analogue of silicon chemistry, with notable stability of both +4 and +2 compounds. Germanium dioxide, GeO₂, is the principal oxide and occurs in quartz-like and rutile-like forms. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, is a volatile liquid used as an intermediate in purification and glass manufacture. Germanium monosulfide, GeS, and germanium disulfide, GeS₂, illustrate lower and higher oxidation-state chalcogenides. Germanes such as germane, GeH₄, are reactive hydrides used in deposition chemistry. Organogermanium compounds contain Ge–C bonds, but their chemistry is less commercially extensive than organosilicon chemistry.
See more information at the Germanium compound page.
Massive germanium metal is of low acute toxicity and is not considered a nutritional requirement for humans. Dusts and finely divided material can irritate the respiratory tract and should be controlled in industrial handling. Germane, GeH₄, is highly flammable and toxic, posing a significant gas-handling hazard. Germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, fumes in moist air and can form corrosive hydrogen chloride, HCl. Some soluble germanium compounds have caused kidney and nerve toxicity when ingested in inappropriate supplement use.
Germanium is a dispersed trace element in the crust and is enriched in some zinc ores, lignites, and coal ashes. In natural waters it commonly follows silica behavior because dissolved germanium species can resemble silicic acid in geochemical cycling. Weathering releases only small concentrations, and the element has no known essential biological function. Industrial releases are usually associated with mining, smelting, coal combustion residues, and processing of germanium-bearing intermediates.
Germanium supply is tied to by-product recovery, so availability depends strongly on zinc refining, processing of certain coal ashes, and the economics of collecting dilute streams. Concentrates are converted through intermediates such as germanium tetrachloride, GeCl₄, then hydrolyzed and reduced to high-purity metal or oxide. Demand is concentrated in fiber optics, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, electronics, and space solar cells. Recycling from optical scrap, semiconductor material, and some catalysts is important because primary sources are geographically and geologically limited. Substitution is possible in some optical and electronic uses, but often with performance or design penalties.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Germanium is a minor cosmic element produced mainly by neutron-capture processes in evolved stars and supernova-related environments, with contributions from charged-particle reactions. It is far less abundant than silicon because heavier nuclei beyond iron-region seed patterns require less common nucleosynthetic pathways. In meteorites and planetary rocks it behaves partly as a moderately siderophile and chalcophile trace element, partitioning into metal and sulfide phases under suitable conditions.
- Germanium was predicted by Mendeleev as eka-silicon before it was isolated.
- Zone refining of germanium helped establish ultra-high-purity semiconductor practice.
- Germanium expands on freezing, as silicon and water do.
- Natural germanium contains five stable isotopes.
- GeO₂ can be reduced to the element with hydrogen in industrial purification.
Bilder
Eigenschaften
Physikalisch
- Atomradius (empirisch)
- 125 pm Vergleiche Atomradius (empirisch) aller Elemente →
- Kovalenzradius
- 120 pm Vergleiche Kovalenzradius aller Elemente →
- Van-der-Waals-Radius
- 211 pm Vergleiche Van-der-Waals-Radius aller Elemente →
- Metallradius
- 124 pm Vergleiche Metallradius aller Elemente →
- Dichte
- 5323,4 kg/m³ Vergleiche Dichte aller Elemente →
- Molares Volumen
- 0,0136 L/mol
- Aggregatzustand bei Standardbedingungen
- Fest Vergleiche Aggregatzustand bei Standardbedingungen aller Elemente →
- Schmelzpunkt
- 938,25 °C Vergleiche Schmelzpunkt aller Elemente →
- Siedepunkt
- 2832,85 °C Vergleiche Siedepunkt aller Elemente →
- Wärmeleitfähigkeit
- 60,2 W/(m·K) Vergleiche Wärmeleitfähigkeit aller Elemente →
- Spezifische Wärmekapazität
- 0,32 J/(g·K) Vergleiche Spezifische Wärmekapazität aller Elemente →
- Molare Wärmekapazität
- 23,222 J/(mol·K) Vergleiche Molare Wärmekapazität aller Elemente →
- Kristallstruktur
- Diamantkubisch Vergleiche Kristallstruktur aller Elemente →
Chemisch
- Elektronegativität (Pauling)
- 2,01 Vergleiche Elektronegativität (Pauling) aller Elemente →
- Elektronegativität (Allen)
- 1,994
- Elektronenaffinität
- 1,232 eV
- Ionisierungsenergie (1.)
- 7,899435 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (1.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (2.)
- 15,934665 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (2.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (3.)
- 34,057717 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (3.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (4.)
- 45,715657 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (4.) aller Elemente →
- Ionisierungsenergie (5.)
- 90,500312 eV Vergleiche Ionisierungsenergie (5.) aller Elemente →
- Oxidationszustände
- −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4 Vergleiche Oxidationszustände aller Elemente →
- Valenzelektronen
- 4 Vergleiche Valenzelektronen aller Elemente →
- Elektronenkonfiguration
- [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
Thermodynamisch
- Kritischer Punkt (Temperatur)
- 9529 °C
- Schmelzwärme
- 0,38285744 eV Vergleiche Schmelzwärme aller Elemente →
- Verdampfungswärme
- 3,420221 eV Vergleiche Verdampfungswärme aller Elemente →
- Sublimationswärme
- 3,907343 eV
- Atomisierungswärme
- 3,907343 eV
- Atomisierungsenthalpie
- 3,855522 eV
Nuklear
- Protonen
- 32 Vergleiche Protonen aller Elemente →
- Neutronen
- 42 Vergleiche Neutronen aller Elemente →
- Bekannte Isotope
- 33 Vergleiche Bekannte Isotope aller Elemente →
- Stabile Isotope
- 4 Vergleiche Stabile Isotope aller Elemente →
- Stabilstes Isotop
- Ge-74
- Entdeckungsjahr
- 1886
Häufigkeit
- Häufigkeit (Erdkruste)
- 1,5 mg/kg Vergleiche Häufigkeit (Erdkruste) aller Elemente →
- Häufigkeit (Ozean)
- 5 × 10−5 mg/L Vergleiche Häufigkeit (Ozean) aller Elemente →
Kristallstruktur
- Gitterkonstante a
- 566 pm
Elektronische Struktur
- Elektronen pro Schale
- 2, 8, 18, 4 Vergleiche Elektronen pro Schale aller Elemente →
Identifikatoren
- CAS-Nummer
- 7440-56-4 Vergleiche CAS-Nummer aller Elemente →
- Termsymbol
- 3P0
- InChI
- InChI=1S/Ge
- InChI-Key
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
Elektronenkonfiguration Gemessen
Ge: 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p²Atommodell
Isotope ändern die Neutronenzahl, Masse und Stabilität — nicht die Elektronenkonfiguration eines neutralen Atoms.
Schematisches Atommodell, nicht maßstabsgetreu.
Atomarer Fingerabdruck
Emissions- / Absorptionsspektrum
Isotopenverteilung
| Massenzahl | Atommasse (u) | Natürliche Häufigkeit | Halbwertszeit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 Stabil | 69,92424875 ± 0,0000009 | 20,5700% | Stabil |
| 72 Stabil | 71,922075826 ± 0,000000081 | 27,4500% | Stabil |
| 73 Stabil | 72,923458956 ± 0,000000061 | 7,7500% | Stabil |
| 74 Stabil | 73,921177761 ± 0,000000013 | 36,5000% | Stabil |
Phase / Zustand
Grund: 913,3 °C unter Schmelzpunkt (938,25 °C)
Schematisch, nicht maßstabsgetreu
Phasenübergangspunkte
Übergangsenergien
Energie benötigt, um 1 mol am Schmelzpunkt zu schmelzen
Energie benötigt, um 1 mol am Siedepunkt zu verdampfen
Energie benötigt, um 1 mol am Sublimationspunkt zu sublimieren
Dichte
Bei Standardbedingungen
Bei Standardbedingungen
Erweitert
Atomspektren
10 von 32 angezeigt. Sortiert nach Ionenladung (aufsteigend).
Liniendaten ?
| Ion | Ladung | Gesamtlinien | Übergangswahrscheinlichkeiten | Niveau-Bezeichnungen |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 224 | 26 | 223 |
| Ge II | +1 | 149 | 20 | 149 |
| Ge III | +2 | 55 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 27 | 0 | 0 |
| Ge V | +4 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
Niveaudaten ?
| Ion | Ladung | Niveaus |
|---|---|---|
| Ge I | 0 | 621 |
| Ge II | +1 | 129 |
| Ge III | +2 | 48 |
| Ge IV | +3 | 55 |
| Ge V | +4 | 102 |
| Ge VI | +5 | 105 |
| Ge VII | +6 | 168 |
| Ge VIII | +7 | 2 |
| Ge IX | +8 | 2 |
| Ge X | +9 | 2 |
Ionenradien
| Ladung | Koordination | Spin | Radius |
|---|---|---|---|
| +2 | 6 | N/A | 73 pm |
| +4 | 4 | N/A | 39 pm |
| +4 | 6 | N/A | 53 pm |
Verbindungen
Isotope (4)
| Massenzahl | Atommasse (u) | Natürliche Häufigkeit | Halbwertszeit | Zerfallsart | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 Stabil | 69,92424875 ± 0,0000009 | 20,5700% ± 0,2700% | Stabil | stable | |
| 72 Stabil | 71,922075826 ± 0,000000081 | 27,4500% ± 0,3200% | Stabil | stable | |
| 73 Stabil | 72,923458956 ± 0,000000061 | 7,7500% ± 0,1200% | Stabil | stable | |
| 74 Stabil | 73,921177761 ± 0,000000013 | 36,5000% ± 0,2000% | Stabil | stable |
Spektrallinien
50 von 57 angezeigt. Standardmäßig werden nur Spektrallinien mit gemessener Intensität angezeigt.
| Wellenlänge (nm) | Intensität | Ionenstufe | Typ | Übergang | Genauigkeit | Quelle | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 474.18054 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 481.46084 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 589.33885 nm | 1000 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 602.10412 nm | 500 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5s 2S → 4s2.5p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 517.86474 nm | 200 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 607.834 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p.(3P*).5s 4P* → 4s.4p.(3P*).5p 4D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 626.8068 nm | 150 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 513.17516 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 626.8341 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.6g 2G | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 633.63765 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 648.41813 nm | 100 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.6s 2S | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 628.34518 nm | 75 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 422.656259 nm | 70 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 1P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 482.40972 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5p 2P* → 4s2.5d 2D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 626.7136 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.6f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 678.0486 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.7d 2D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 704.93692 nm | 50 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 384.50994 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 4P → 4s2.5p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 714.53898 nm | 30 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 494.12769 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 520.56488 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 696.63205 nm | 20 | Ge II | emission | 4s.4p2 2D → 4s2.5p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 439.1656 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 520.58372 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.7g 2G | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 552.2987 nm | 15 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.6p 2P* → 4s2.8d 2D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 439.179 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4f 2F* → 4s2.9g 2G | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 466.2311 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.8f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 468.582849 nm | 10 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p2 1S → 4s2.4p.5s 3P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 493.40754 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.6p 2P* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 517.84615 nm | 10 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.4d 2D → 4s2.4f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 569.19543 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 580.2093 nm | 9 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 556.47408 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3S | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 560.70101 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 565.596 nm | 8 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 562.14256 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 733.0383 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.7d (1/2,3/2)* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 738.4208 nm | 7 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.8s (1/2,1/2)* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 526.58915 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 551.32634 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 561.61353 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3P | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 566.4226 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1S | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 570.17765 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 1P | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 580.1029 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 655.74883 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 1P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 713.0126 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 3D → 4s2.4p.7d (3/2,5/2)* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 740.2648 nm | 6 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5p 1P → 4s2.4p.6d (3/2,3/2)* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 518.4103 nm | 5 | Ge II | emission | 4s2.5d 2D → 4s2.7f 2F* | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 566.4842 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2] | Gemessen | NIST | |
| 571.78769 nm | 5 | Ge I | emission | 4s2.4p.5s 3P* → 4s2.4p.6p 3D | Gemessen | NIST |
Erweiterte Eigenschaften
Kovalente Radien (Erweitert)
- Kovalenzradius (Pyykkö)
- 121 pm
- Kovalenzradius (Pyykkö, doppelt)
- 111 pm
- Kovalenzradius (Pyykkö, dreifach)
- 114 pm
Van-der-Waals-Radien
- Truhlar
- 211 pm
- Batsanov
- 210 pm
- Alvarez
- 229 pm
- UFF
- 428 pm
- MM3
- 244 pm
- Dreiding
- 427 pm
Atom- & Metallische Radien
- Atomradius (Rahm)
- 234 pm
- Metallradius (C12)
- 144 pm
Nummerierungsskalen
- Mendeleev
- 89
- Pettifor
- 84
- Glawe
- 84
Elektronegativitätsskalen
- Ghosh
- 0
- Miedema
- 5
- Gunnarsson–Lundqvist
- 5
- Robles–Bartolotti
- 4
Polarisierbarkeit & Dispersion
- Dipolpolarisierbarkeit
- 40 a.u.
- Dipolpolarisierbarkeit (Uns.)
- 1 a.u.
- C₆
- 354 Ha·Bohr6
- C₆ (Gould–Bučko)
- 365 Ha·Bohr6
Miedema-Parameter
- Miedema-Molvolumen
- 9,87 cm3/mol
- Miedema-Elektronendichte
- 3
Lieferrisiko & Wirtschaftlichkeit
- Produktionskonzentration
- 67
- Relatives Lieferrisiko
- 8
- Politische Stabilität (Top-Produzent)
- 24
Phasenübergänge & Allotrope
| Schmelzpunkt | 1211,4 K |
| Siedepunkt | 3106,15 K |
| Kritischer Punkt (Temperatur) | 9802,15 K |
Oxidationszustands-Kategorien
Erweiterte Referenzdaten
Abschirmkonstanten (8)
| n | Orbital | σ |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | s | 0,7063 |
| 2 | p | 3,9178 |
| 2 | s | 8,6352 |
| 3 | d | 15,7487 |
| 3 | p | 14,9864 |
| 3 | s | 14,2103 |
| 4 | p | 25,2196 |
| 4 | s | 23,9564 |
Kristallradien-Details (3)
| Ladung | CN | Spin | rcrystal (pm) | Herkunft |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | VI | 87 | Ahrens (1952) ionic radius, | |
| 4 | IV | 53 | ||
| 4 | VI | 67 | from r^3 vs V plots, |
Isotopenzerfallsarten (50)
| Isotop | Modus | Intensität |
|---|---|---|
| 58 | 2p | — |
| 59 | B+ | 100% |
| 59 | B+p | 93% |
| 59 | 2p | 0,2% |
| 60 | B+ | 100% |
| 60 | B+p | 100% |
| 60 | 2p | 14% |
| 61 | B+ | 100% |
| 61 | B+p | 87% |
| 62 | B+ | 100% |
Röntgenstreufaktoren (506)
| Energie (eV) | f₁ | f₂ |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | — | 3,01183 |
| 10,1617 | — | 3,05548 |
| 10,3261 | — | 3,09976 |
| 10,4931 | — | 3,14468 |
| 10,6628 | — | 3,19025 |
| 10,8353 | — | 3,21825 |
| 11,0106 | — | 3,20755 |
| 11,1886 | — | 3,19689 |
| 11,3696 | — | 3,18626 |
| 11,5535 | — | 3,17568 |
Zusätzliche Daten
Estimated Crustal Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.
1.5 milligrams per kilogram
Referenzen (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Estimated Oceanic Abundance
The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.
5×10-5 milligrams per liter
Referenzen (1)
- [5] Germanium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele032.html
Sources
Sources of this element.
The metal is found in
▸ argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver;
▸ germanite, which contains 8 percent of the element;
▸ zinc ores;
▸ coal; and
▸ other minerals
The element is commercially obtained from the dust from smelters that process zinc ores. It is also recovered from combustion by-products of certain coals.
Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. These techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity.
Referenzen (1)
- [6] Germanium https://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml
Referenzen
(9)
Data deposited in or computed by PubChem
The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.
Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/
The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.
The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database
This section provides all form of data related to element Germanium.
The element property data was retrieved from publications.